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Leaders Of The Conservative Party

Leaders of the Conservative Party

Leaders of the Conservative Party since 1834.

Background

Until 1922 there was no formal "Leader of the Conservative Party". The leaders of Conservative MPs and Conservative peers were regarded as coequal unless one of them was either the Prime Minister or a former Prime Minister, or if a particular crisis (as in 1846-1847 or 1916) had resulted in one clearly asserting authority over the other. In the periods when this was not the case (1881 - 1885, 1911 - 1916, 1921 - 1922) there was no clear "Leader of the Conservative Party" - this contributed to some of the internal party conflict at the time. In 1911 the Parliament Act reduced the power of the Lords and it seemed likely that the leader in the Commons would be preeminent, however this was not formally recognised for another eleven years (and there were several occasions when members of the Lords were strongly considered for the leadership of the whole party after this time). From 1922 an overall leader has been formally elected by a joint meeting of MPs, Peers and prospective parliamentary candidates, even when the party is in opposition. Initially until 1965 this election consisted of the individual who had been already asked by the monarch to form a government being ratified by the meeting (the leadership did not fall vacant at any time when the party was in opposition in this period), however more recently a succession of ballots have been held in order to chose between competing candidates. The distinction of the leaders is often overlooked by many and there are lists in circulation that assume the eventual single leader who emerged after a period of coequal leadership was the leader from the outset. However this was not always the case - for example in 1881 it was widely expected that the Commons leader Sir Stafford Northcote would be the next Conservative Prime Minister but by the time the party had returned to government in 1885 political developments had resulted in the Lords leader Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury having the stronger claimant for the premiership.

Leaders in the House of Lords 1834-1922

Those asterisked considered the overall leader of the party.
- Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington 1828-1846 (
- until 1834)
- Edward Smith-Stanley, 1st Baron Stanley of Bickerstaffe (14th Earl of Derby from 1851) 1846 - 1868
-
- James Howard Harris, 3rd Earl of Malmesbury 1868-1869
- Hugh Cairns, 1st Baron Cairns 1869-1870
- Charles Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond 1870-1876
- Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield 1876 - 1881
-
- Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury 1881 - 1902 (
- from 1885)
- Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire 1902-1903
- Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne 1903-1916
- George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Earl Curzon of Kedleston (1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston from 1921) 1916-1925

Leaders in the House of Commons 1834-1922

- Sir Robert Peel 1834 - 1846
-
- Lord George Bentinck 1846-1847
- Charles Manners, Marquess of Granby 1848
- None 1848-1849
- Jointly Benjamin Disraeli, Charles Manners, Marquess of Granby and John Charles Herries 1849-1852
- Benjamin Disraeli 1852 - 1876 (
- from 1868)
- Sir Stafford Northcote 1876-1885
- Sir Michael Hicks Beach 1885-1886
- Lord Randolph Churchill 1886-1887
- William Henry Smith 1887-1891
- Arthur James Balfour, 1st Earl Balfour 1891 - 1911 (
- from 1902)
- Andrew Bonar Law 1911-1921 (
- from 1916)
- Sir Austen Chamberlain 1921-1922

Leader of the Conservative Party 1922-present

- Andrew Bonar Law (1922 - 1923)
- Stanley Baldwin (1923 - 1937)
- Neville Chamberlain (1937 - 1940)
- Winston Churchill (1940 - 1955)
- Anthony Eden (1955 - 1957)
- Harold Macmillan (1957 - 1963)
- Alec Douglas-Home (1963 - 1965)
- Edward Heath (1965 - 1975)
- Margaret Thatcher (1975 - 1990)
- John Major (1990 - 1997)
- William Hague (1997 - 2001)
- Iain Duncan Smith (2001 - 2003)
- Michael Howard (2003 - 2005)
- David Cameron (2005-) Category:UK Conservative Party

Conservative Party (UK)

The Conservative Party is the largest political party on the right-of-centre in the United Kingdom. It is descended from the Tory Party and its members are still commonly referred to as Tories. Its current leader is David Cameron, who as Leader of the Opposition heads the Shadow Cabinet. The Conservatives were the governing party in the United Kingdom on many occasions between 1834 and 1997. The last Conservative Prime Minister was John Major. Since losing the 1997 election to the Labour Party under Tony Blair, they have been in opposition. The Tories are a member of the International Democrat Union and its European section. Within the European Parliament they are members of an informal bloc called the European Democrats (ED), which sits in a coalition arrangement with the EPP as the EPP-ED group. Cameron has announced his intention to end the partnership between the Eurosceptic and Conservative ED and the more Europhillic and Christian Democratic EPP, although this move has been opposed by some in the party.

Name

The Party's official name, registered with the UK Electoral Commission but rarely used outside Scotland and Northern Ireland, is The Conservative and Unionist Party. This formal name is a hangover from the 1912 merger with the Liberal Unionist Party, and an echo of the party's defence (1886-1921) of what they then saw as the need to maintain the Union of Great Britain and Ireland. During this period the party and its allies were often referred to as the "Unionist Party". Following the establishment of the Irish Free State, "Conservative" came back into prominence, though "Unionist" remained, referring to the Party's support for British sovereignty in Northern Ireland in opposition to Irish nationalist and republican aspirations. For many years the Ulster Unionist Party supported the Conservatives in the House of Commons and took the Conservative whip. This arrangement broke down in the aftermath of the imposition of direct rule in Northern Ireland in 1972.

Symbol and slogan

The electoral symbol of the Conservative party is a hand holding a torch. Its present motto, adopted by the Party on 6 December 2005, is Change to Win – Win for Britain. This replaces the previous slogan, Today's Britain Tomorrow's Conservatives

Conservative Party today

2005 Since 1922, only the Conservative Party and Labour Party have been in government and official opposition. Since 1997, the Conservative Party has been in opposition to the Labour Party, led by Tony Blair. Although there are nine political parties represented in the House of Commons, three dominate the house. As of 7 May 2005, Labour holds a 66-member majority in the house, with 356 Members of Parliament. The Conservatives come in second with 198 Members of Parliament and the Liberal Democrats follow with 62 Members of Parliament. Conservative leaders since 1997 have faced difficulties in returning the party to being a serious contender for government. John Major's successor, William Hague, resigned after a second landslide defeat in 2001. Iain Duncan Smith, the leader after 2001, was deposed in a vote of no confidence in 2003, to be followed by Michael Howard. Howard reduced the Labour majority at the 2005 general election, but the day after the poll he announced that he would resign "sooner rather than later", citing his age as the principal reason for his resignation. The party had only marginally increased its share of the vote to 32.3%. In December of 2005 David Cameron was elected leader of the party, defeating David Davis in a ballot of the nationwide party membership. In choosing David Cameron the Conservatives have chosen a leader with an aristocratic background for the first time since Sir Alec Douglas-Home was leader in 1964. Like Home, his predecessor Harold MacMillan and Macmillan's predecessor Anthony Eden Cameron was educated at Eton College and like them he is from a privileged upper class background.

Policies

Conservative Party policies are generally supportive of reduced government intervention in the economic sphere (e.g. through tax cuts and privatisations) and increased government intervention in the social or cultural sphere (e.g. through the 'defence' of the traditional family and through restrictions on immigration). They are also noted for their Eurosceptic stance. Many commentators believe that their post-1997 failure in UK politics is partly the result of continued internal tension between Europhiles (such as Kenneth Clarke and Michael Heseltine) and Eurosceptics (such as John Redwood and William Hague). However, the Conservative party have in recent years come to terms with these issues, and even the archetypal pro-European, Kenneth Clarke, has reluctantly accepted the party line on Europe. Conservatives are also generally opposed to devolution to the regions of the UK, prefering a unitary centralised state. They opposed devolution to Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland in 1999, as well as the unsuccessful attempt at devolution of power to the North of England in 2004.

Economic policy

During much of the twentieth century the Conservative Party was considered the "natural party of government", a position founded upon the party's reputation for pragmatism and economic competence. The contrast with Labour's perceived poor twentieth-century record remained strong, even as the Conservative governments of the 1980s presided over mass unemployment (peaking at 11% in 1986) on a scale which had not been seen since the 1930s. The party's economic reputation was, however, dealt a fatal blow by the 1992 Black Wednesday debacle, in which billions of pounds were wasted trying to keep the pound within the European ERM system of exchange rates at an overvalued rate. This, combined with the recession of the early 1990s, allowed Tony Blair and Gordon Brown to claim from the Conservatives the mantle of economic competence. Many on both the left and right have since argued that New Labour's embrace of market forces and public sector modernisation amounted to little more than stealing the Conservative Party's economic clothes, and this has irked many Conservatives. As a result of the dominance of the Labour Party in debates over economic policy, recent Conservative election campaigns have focused much more on social or cultural issues such as crime, immigration and asylum. The party has even felt it necessary to commit to matching Labour spending plans - a reverse of the situation in 1997.

Social policy

The Conservative Party has historically been associated with social conservatism, views which have often been reflected in the party's social policies. One of the more controversial examples of Conservative social conservatism was Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988, which outlawed "the teaching in any maintained school of the acceptability of homosexuality as a pretended family relationship". This legislation was regarded by many as homophobic, and is seen to have driven many liberal-minded individuals away from the party (most notably former Conservative MP Shaun Woodward, who defected to Labour in 1999 after William Hague sacked him from the shadow cabinet for refusing to support Section 28 in a parliamentary vote). Many Conservative modernisers have claimed that the traditional and authoritarian nature of past Conservative social policies has played a major role in the decline of the party in the 1990s and 2000s. For example, David Willetts has criticised what he termed "the war on single parents", whilst former Conservative Party Chairman Brian Mawhinney observed that the party had "created the impression that if you weren't in a traditional nuclear family, then we weren't interested in you". Since 1997, a debate has therefore raged within the party between modernisers such as Michael Portillo, who believe that the Conservatives should change their social views in line with 21st century Britain, and traditionalists such as William Hague and David Davis, who argue that the party should stick to its traditional conservative social agenda. The Conservative Party grassroots have pushed in the latter direction, helping the right wing of the party win many of these political battles. This famously resulted in William Hague's and Michael Howard's pre-election swings to the right (in 2001 and 2005, respectively), and the election of the stop-Ken Clarke candidate Iain Duncan Smith in 2001. Theresa May famously remarked that the result of all this was that the Conservatives were perceived as "the nasty party". One area in which the battle for the soul of the party was visible was the party's position on ID cards. At first it was hesitant to oppose a measure that some consider valuable in the fight against crime and terrorism. However, before the 2005 election, Shadow Home Secretary David Davis decided to position himself against the introduction of ID cards. He followed Michael Howard's original line that they were a good idea, but showed caution in the House of Commons when they were debated. At the same time, he argued within the Shadow Cabinet that escalating cost estimates and the need to protect libertarian values meant that the proposals should be opposed. Subsequently, the party altered its line, first allowing a free vote on ID cards and then opposing them outright. This was viewed by some as a victory for Davis, and a useful means for him to attempt to reach out to liberal Conservatives before the subsequent Conservative leadership election. The 2005 election saw the first black Conservative MP, Adam Afriyie, elected in Windsor. This contrasts positively with the situation in Cheltenham thirteen years earlier, when the black Conservative candidate John Taylor was defeated defending a Conservative seat, allegedly due to the unwillingness of local Conservatives voters to support a non-white candidate. Conservative modernisers point to Afriyie's election as evidence that the party is changing, though opponents argue that the election of a single black MP in what is essentially a safe seat doesn't count for much against the anti-immigration campaign fought by the Conservatives in 2005.

Foreign Policy

No policy area has divided the Conservative party more than foreign affairs in the post war era, in particular the Party position over Europe. The principal architect of Britain’s entry into the Common Market (later European Community and European Union ) was Edward Heath but his consistently pro-Europe position in the 1960s and 1970s was opposed by Enoch Powell and others. Divisions grew under John Major’s premiership (1990-1997) when the parliamentary party’s factionalism over Europe seriously weakened the Prime Minister’s position. More recently the position of those who favour closer ties with Europe (e.g. including Britain’s adoption of the single currency, the Euro) has been diluted as the party leadership has been increasingly Eurosceptic. David Cameron, who defeated the pro-Europe Kenneth Clarke in the leadership election of 2005, continues this position, supported by his equally Eurosceptic Foreign Affairs spokesman William Hague. Historically the Conservative party has taken a broadly Atlanticist stance in relations with the United States favouring close ties with, and offering support to, America. Under Margaret Thatcher this reached its height and she built a close relationship with the American President Ronald Reagan. More recently these links have been weaker and recent party leaders have failed to establish even cordial relations with George Bush who had himself established close ties with Tony Blair. However David Cameron and his supporters have openly supported the neoconservative political positions of George Bush and it is likely that the Conservative party will seek to rebuild their historic links with the American Republican Party in the run up to the next British General Election.

History

Main articles: History of the Conservative Party and Leaders of the Conservative Party The origins of the Conservative Party go back to the Tory faction of 1678-1681 which opposed the exclusion of the Duke of York, later King James VII&II, from the order of succession to the throne. The term 'Conservative' was first used by George Canning in the 1820s and was suggested as a title for the party by John Wilson Croker in the 1830s and later officially adopted, but the party is still often referred to as the 'Tory Party' (not least because newspaper editors find it a convenient shorthand when space is limited). The Tories more often than not formed the government from the accession of King George III (in 1760) until the Great Reform Act of 1832. Widening of the franchise in the 19th century led the party to popularise its approach, especially under Benjamin Disraeli who carried through his own Reform Act in 1868. After 1886 the Conservatives allied with Liberals who opposed their party's support for Irish Home Rule and held office for all but three of the following twenty years, but when it split over tariff reform, the party suffered a landslide election defeat. World War I saw an all-party coalition and the Conservatives then stayed in Coalition with half of the Liberals for four years after the armistice. Eventually, grassroots pressure forced the breakup of the Coalition and the party regained power on its own. It again dominated the political scene in the inter-war period, from 1931 in a 'National Government' coalition. However in the 1945 general election the party lost power in a landslide to the Labour Party. After the end of the Second World War, the Conservatives accepted the reality of the Labour government's nationalisation programme and creation of the 'welfare state', but when it returned to power promoted an economic boom, under Winston Churchill and later Harold Macmillan, which led back to prosperity in the 1950s. The Heath government of 1970-74 was notable for taking Britain into the EEC, a decision which would have a significant effect on the party over subsequent decades. In 1975 Margaret Thatcher became leader and converted it to support a monetarist economic programme; after her election victory in 1979 her government became known for a free-market approach and privatisation of public utilities. Here, the Conservatives experienced a high-point, Thatcher leading the Conservatives to two landslide election victories in 1983 and 1987. However, she was deeply unpopular in some sections of society, initially for the massive unemployment caused by the economic reforms, and later for what was seen as a heavy-handed response to the Miners' strike, and for her introduction of the Community Charge, known by its opponents as the poll tax and repealed within a year or two in favour of the council tax, essentially the previous rates system by another name. However, Thatcher's increasing unpopularity and unwillingness to change policies perceived as vote-losing, together with internal tensions over European policy, led to her being deposed in 1990. She was replaced by John Major who won an unexpected election victory in 1992. Major's government suffered a political blow when the Pound Sterling was forced out of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism later that year, which lost the party much of its reputation for good financial stewardship. An effective opposition campaign by the Labour Party led to a landslide defeat in 1997. William Hague (1997 - 2001) portrayed himself at first as a moderniser with a common touch. However by the time the 2001 general election came he concentrated on Europe, asylum seekers and tax cuts whilst declaring that only the Conservative Party could "Save the Pound". He was seen as a political lightweight by many, and was widely mocked for his claim that he drank 14 imperial pints (8 l) of beer in a day in his youth. Despite a low turnout, the election resulted in a net gain of a single seat for the Conservative Party and William Hague's resignation as party leader. Iain Duncan Smith (2001-2003) (often known as IDS) was a strong Eurosceptic but this did not define his leadership - indeed it was during his tenure that Europe ceased to be an issue of division in the party as it united behind calls for a referendum on the proposed European Union Constitution. Duncan Smith's Shadow Cabinet contained many new and unfamiliar faces but despite predictions by some that the party would lurch to the right the team instead followed a pragmatic moderate approach to policy. After losing a vote of confidence, Duncan Smith remained as caretaker leader until Michael Howard, MP for Folkestone and Hythe, was elected to the post of leader (as the only candidate) on 6 November 2003. Howard announced radical changes to the way the Shadow Cabinet would work. He slashed the number of members by half, with Theresa May and Tim Yeo each shadowing two government departments. Minor departments still have shadows but have been removed from the cabinet, and the post of Shadow Leader of the House of Commons was abolished. The role of party chairman was also split into two, with Lord Saatchi responsible for the party machine, and Liam Fox handling publicity. Michael Portillo was offered a position but refused, due to his plans to step down from Parliament at the next election. In the 2005 general election, the Conservative Party made a partial recovery, increasing their share of the vote by around 0.6% (up to 32.3%). However, due to a tactical unwind by Liberal Democrat voters (many of whom were no longer willing to back the Labour party in Labour vs. Conservative marginal seats), the Conservatives made a net gain of 33 seats. This helped slash the Labour majority from 167 seats down to 66. The day after, on May 6, Howard announced that he believed himself too old to lead the party into another election campaign, and he would therefore be stepping down to allow a new leader the time to prepare for the next election. Howard said that he believed that the party needed to amend the rules governing the election of the Party leader, and that he would allow time for that to happen before resigning. See Conservative Party (UK) leadership election, 2005 The campaign has received [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,19809-1604717,00.html criticism] from its main financial backer, Michael Spencer. In an interview with The Times Tim Collins claims the reasons the party won more seats will not or may not be repeated in the next general election:
- Unpopularity of Tony Blair which helped the Liberal Democrats and hence the Conservative Party in close fights.
- Labour's campaign in their marginal seats was poor. David Cameron (6th December 2005 - ) was victorious, in the competition against David Davis, as the new Tory leader. He beat his rival David Davis by a margin of more than two to one, taking 134,446 votes to 64,398. He became the fourth leader of his party since 1997 to take on Tony Blair and after the result was announced, spoke to supporters without notes, delivering a passionate rallying cry. The ballot result was declared at London's Royal Academy of Arts by Sir Michael Spicer, chairman of the Tory MPs' backbench 1922 committee. David Cameron was elected as the Conservative Member of Parliament for the Witney constituency in West Oxfordshire in June 2001.(Source scotsman.co.uk online newspaper and davidcameronmp.com)

Internal Factions

There are three main political factions within the modern Conservative Party: One Nation Conservatives were the dominant faction for most of the post-war era, providing Conservative Prime Ministers such as Harold MacMillan (1957-1963) and Edward Heath (1970-1974). The name comes from a famous phrase of Benjamin Disraeli and the basis of One Nation Conservatism is a belief in social cohesion, and advocates therefore support social institutions that maintain harmony between people of different classes (and more recently, people of different races or religions). These institutions have typically included the welfare state, the BBC, and local government. One Nation Conservatives are usually seen as being socially liberal, since tolerance is viewed as an important factor in social cohesion. Many are also supporters of the European Union, perhaps stemming from an extension of the cohesion principle to the international level, though some are strongly hostile to the EU. Prominent One Nation Conservatives in the modern party include Kenneth Clarke, Malcolm Rifkind and Damian Green, and the faction is associated with the internal pressure group, the Tory Reform Group. The Thatcherite wing of the party achieved dominance after the election of Margaret Thatcher as party leader in 1975. The Thatcherite political agenda is mainly concerned with reducing the role of the government in the economy, and to this end they support tax cuts, privatisation of public services and a reduction in the size of the welfare state. Though Thatcher herself was socially conservative, her supporters harbour a range of social opinions from the liberal views of Michael Portillo to the traditional conservatism of William Hague and David Davis. Thatcherites are Eurosceptic, since they view many European regulations as unwelcome interference in the market. Many take inspiration from Thatcher's famous anti-EU Bruges speech in 1988, in which she declared that "we have not successfully rolled back the frontiers of the state in Britain, only to see them reimposed at a European level". Thatcherites also tend to be atlanticist, dating back to the close friendship between Thatcher and US President Ronald Reagan. The so-called Faith, Flag and Family wing are the third main element within the Conservative Party. This faction's name is drawn from its support for three British social institutions: the established Church, the unitary British state and the traditional family. To this end, they emphasise Britain's Protestant heritage, they oppose any transfer of power away from the state (either downwards to the nations and regions or upwards to the European Union), and they are highly critical of homosexuals, single parents and other non-traditional family groupings. They are strongly opposed to immigration into the UK, and some have in the past professed racist opinions. They also are known for their support for capital punishment. Prominent MPs from this wing of the party include Andrew Rosindell and Edward Leigh. It should be noted that this faction has never been particularly strong within the parliamentary party, although its strength within the rank-and-file party membership means that it wields considerable power over Conservative social policy. Gay Conservative MP Alan Duncan famously once referred to this wing as a "Taleban tendency" within the party. Historically, many Conservatives from this faction were members of the Monday Club, and more recently they have participated in the Cornerstone Group. Note that not all Conservative MPs can be easily placed within these three groupings. For example, John Major was the ostensibly "Thatcherite" candidate during the 1990 leadership election, but he consistently promoted One Nation Conservatives to the higher reaches of his cabinet during his time as Prime Minister. These included Kenneth Clarke (Chancellor of the Exchequer) and Michael Heseltine (Deputy Prime Minister), two of the architects of Thatcher's downfall.

Associated groups

Full list is at: List of organisations associated with the British Conservative Party
- Bow Group
- Cchange
- Centre for Policy Studies
- Conservative Research Department
- Conservative Way Forward
- Cornerstone Group
- European Foundation
- Tory Reform Group
- Monday Club
- Selsdon Group

Sleaze

A number of political scandals in the 1980s and 1990s created the impression of what is described in the British press as "sleaze": a perception that the Conservatives were associated with political corruption and hypocrisy. In particular, the successful entrapment of Graham Riddick and David Tredinnick in the "cash for questions" scandal, the contemporaneous misconduct as a minister by Neil Hamilton (who lost a consequent libel action against The Guardian), and the convictions of former Cabinet member Jonathan Aitken and former party deputy chairman Jeffrey Archer for perjury in two separate cases leading to custodial sentences damaged the Conservatives' public reputation. Persistent unsubstantiated rumours about the activities of the party treasurer Michael Ashcroft did not help this impression. At the same time, a series of revelations about the private lives of various Conservative politicians grabbed the headlines, and both the media and the party's opponents made little attempt to clarify the distinction between financial conduct and private lives. John Major's "Back to Basics" campaign backfired because of media focus on its moral aspects, where they exposed "sleaze" within the Conservative Party and, most damagingly, within the Cabinet itself. A number of ministers were then revealed to have committed sexual indiscretions, and Major was forced by media pressure to dismiss them. In September 2002 it was revealed that, prior to his promotion to the cabinet, Major had himself had a longstanding extramarital affair with a fellow MP, Edwina Currie. However, more recently controversies arising in the Labour Party such as David Blunkett's affair with Spectator editor Kimberly Fortier has led many to believe that sleaze is not only endemic to the Conservative Party but to British Politics as a whole. A relationship between length of office and the level of "sleaze" within Government may be apparent with all British Political Parties.

External links

Official Party sites

- [http://www.conservatives.com/ The Conservative Party]
- [http://www.scottishtories.org.uk/ The Scottish Conservative & Unionist Party]
- [http://www.conservatives.com/wales/ Welsh Conservatives]
- [http://www.conservativesni.com/ Conservatives in Northern Ireland]
- [http://www.conservativefuture.com/ Conservative Future] - party youth wing

Internal party policy groups

- [http://www.bowgroup.org.uk The Bow Group]
- [http://www.conwayfor.org Conservative Way Forward]
- [http://www.trg.org.uk The Tory Reform Group]

Other

- [http://www.conservative-party.net/ An archive of Conservative electoral manifestos from 1900-present and a directory of Conservative Party websites, including constituency associations]
- [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/conservatives/ Guardian Unlimited Politics - Special Report: Conservative Party]
- [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us552286/us526499/us526505/us10234373/us703545/us671216/us671220/ LookSmart - Conservative Party] directory category
- [http://www.spectator.co.uk/ The Spectator] Often called the Conservative Party "house journal", although not officially affiliated to the party
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Society_and_Culture/Politics/Parties/Conservative/ Open Directory Project - Conservative Party] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/United_Kingdom/Government/Politics/Parties/Conservative_Party/ Yahoo! - Conservative Party] directory category
- Geoffrey Wheatcroft, The Guardian , June 21, 2005, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,1510906,00.html "I said the Tories were dead. It was an understatement: Since the election the party has made every available mistake"]
- [http://www.thatcherite.blogspot.com/ David Stewart - British Conservative] An interesting look at the Conservative party, a good place to get both lighthearted and serious political talk.
- Category:Political parties in the United Kingdom Category:Northern Ireland political parties Category:International Democrat Union ja:保守党 (イギリス)

1922

1922 (MCMXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 7 - Dáil Éireann, the extra-legal parliament of the Irish Republic, ratifies the Anglo-Irish Treaty by 64-57 votes.
- January 10 - Arthur Griffith is elected President of Dáil Éireann.
- January 11 - First successful insulin treatment of diabetes.
- January 12 - British government releases remaining Irish prisoners captured in the War of Independence.
- January 13 - Flu epidemic has claimed 804 victims in Britain.
- January 15 - Michael Collins becomes Chairman of the Irish Provisional Government.
- January 24 - Christian K. Nelson patents the Eskimo Pie.
- January 29 - Union of Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador is dissolved
- February 1 - William Desmond Taylor, Hollywood director, is shot in his home
- February 2 - Ulysses (novel) by James Joyce is published in Paris on his fortieth birthday by Sylvia Beach.
- February 5 - DeWitt and Lila Wallace publish the first issue of Reader's Digest.
- February 6 - Achille Ratti becomes Pope Pius XI.
- February 6 - Five Power Naval Disarmament Treaty signed between United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy
- February 8 - President of the United States, Warren G. Harding introduces the first radio in the White House.
- February 8 - Cheka becomes GPU, a section of NKVD
- February 14 - Finnish Minister of the Interior Heikki Ritavuori is assassinated by Ernst Tandefelt.
- February 25 - Murderer Henri Désiré Landru's head is chopped off by the guillotine.
- February 27 - A challenge to the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, allowing women the right to vote, is rebuffed by the Supreme Court of the United States.
- February 28 - The United Kingdom accepts the independence of Egypt.
- March 1 - Ice mass breaks the Oder dam in Breslau
- March 1 - The British Civil Aviation Authority is established.
- March 11 - Mohandas Gandhi is arrested in Bombay for sedition
- March 15 - Egypt having gained nominal independence from the United Kingdom, Fuad I becomes King of Egypt.
- March 18 - In India, Mohandas Gandhi is sentenced to six years in prison for sedition. He would serve only two years.
- March 20 - The USS Langley is commissioned as the first United States Navy aircraft carrier.
- April 7 - Teapot Dome scandal: United States Secretary of the Interior leases Teapot Dome oil reserves in Wyoming.
- April 7 - First air collision between Daimler Airways DH 18 ja Grands Express Farman Goliat collide over Poix
- April 10 - The historic Genoa Conference commences in Genoa. The representatives of 34 countries convened to speak about monetary economics in the wake of World War I.
- April 13 - State of Massachusetts opens all public offices to women
- April 16 - The Treaty of Rapallo marks rapprochement between the Weimar Republic and Bolshevist Russia.
- May 5 - In The Bronx, construction begins on Yankee Stadium.
- May 12 - 20-ton meteorite lands near Blackstone, Virginia, USA
- May 19 - Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union is established.
- May 29 - British Liberal MP Horatio Bottomley jailed for 7 years for fraud fraud
- May 30 - In Washington, D.C., the Lincoln Memorial is dedicated.
- June 1 - Official founding of the Royal Ulster Constabulary.
- June 1 - Bolshevik forces defeat Asmachi troops under Enver Pasha
- June 22 - IRA rebels assassinated British field marshal Henry Wilson in Belgravia - assassins are sentenced to death July 18.
- June 24 - Assassination of Weimar Republic foreign minister Walter Rathenau - murderers are captured July 17
- June 26 - Louis Honoré Charles Antoine Grimaldi becomes Reigning Prince Louis II of Monaco.
- June 28 - The Irish Civil War begins
- August 12 - Death of Arthur Griffith, President of Dáil Éireann
- August 22 - Death of General Michael Collins - President of the Irish Provisional Government and Commander-in-Chief of the Provisional Army, killed in an ambush.
- August 23 - Revolt against the Spanish in Morocco
- August 28 - Japan agrees to withdraw its troops from Siberia
- September 9 - Turkish forces pursuing withdrawing Greek troops enter Smyrna
- September 11 - One of the Herald Sun of Melbourne, Australia's predecessor papers The Sun News-Pictorial is founded.
- September 13 - 15 - Fire, probably started by Turkish troops, destroys most of Smyrna. Death toll estimated 100,000
- September 18 - Hungary joins the League of Nations
- October 9 - Sir William Horwood, London Metropolitan Police Service commissioner is poisoned by arsenic-filled chocolates
- October 23 - German army occupies Saxony and crushes Soviet Republic of Saxony
- October 25 - The Third Dáil enacts the Constitution of the Irish Free State.
- October 28 - In Italy, with the March on Rome, Fascism obtains power and Benito Mussolini becomes prime minister
- October 28 - Red Army occupies Vladivostok
- October 31 - Benito Mussolini becomes the youngest Premier in the history of Italy.
- September 23 - Gdynia Seaport Construction Act passed by the Polish parliament.
- November 1 - Ottoman Empire is abolished and its last sultan Mehmed VI Vahdettin abdicates.
- November 1 - The broadcasting license fee of ten shillings introduced in the United Kingdom
- November 4 - In Egypt, British archaeologist Howard Carter and his men find the entrance to King Tutankhamen's tomb in the Valley of the Kings.
- November 14 - The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) begins radio service in the United Kingdom. 2LO became the first radio station in the United Kingdom.
- November 17 - Former Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI leaves for exile in Italy.
- November 19 - Abdul Mejid II, Crown Prince of the Ottoman Empire is elected Caliph.
- November 21 - Rebecca Felton of Georgia takes the oath of office, becoming the first woman United States Senator.
- November 24 - Popular author and Irish Republican Army member Robert Erskine Childers is executed by an Irish Free State firing squad for illegally carrying a revolver.
- November 26 - Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon become the first people to enter the tomb of Egyptian King Tutankhamun in over 3000 years. Tutankhamun
- December 5 - British parliament enacts the Irish Free State Constitution Act, by which it legally sanctions the new Constitution of the Irish Free State.
- December 6 - The Irish Free State officially comes into existence. George V becomes the Free State's monarch. Tim Healy is appointed first Governor-General of the Irish Free State and W.T. Cosgrave becomes President of the Executive Council.
- December 14 - Assassination of Gabriel Narutowicz, the president of Poland
- December 30 - Russia and allied Soviet republics form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

Exact month/day of event unknown

- Invention of Vegemite by Australian Fred Walker
- Kurd Istigdul Djemijetin, the Kurdish Independence Committee, founded
- Ring Magazine first published
- Molly Pitcher Club formed to promote the repeal of prohibition in United States
- Raymond Pearl founds Quarterly Review of Biology.
- Thompson Webb founds The Webb Schools

Births

January-March

- January 1 - Ernest "Fritz" Hollings, U.S. Senator from South Carolina
- January 7 - Jean-Pierre Rampal, French flutist (d. 2000)
- January 9 - Har Gobind Khorana, Indian biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- January 13 - Albert Lamorisse, French film director (d. 1970)
- January 16 - Ernesto Bonino, Italian singer
- January 17 - Nicholas Katzenbach, American politician
- January 17 - Betty White, American television actress
- January 19 - Guy Madison, American actor (d. 1996)
- January 21 - Paul Scofield, English actor
- January 22 - Leonel Brizola, Brazilian politician
- January 28 - Robert W. Holley, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1993)
- January 30 - Dick Martin, American comedian
- February 1 - Renata Tebaldi, Italian soprano (d. 2004)
- February 6 - Patrick Macnee, British actor
- February 6 - Bill Johnston, Australian cricketer
- February 6 - Denis Norden, British television and radio scriptwriter and personality
- February 7 - Hattie Jacques, British actress (d. 1980)
- February 9 - Kathryn Grayson, American actress
- February 15 - John Bayard Anderson, U.S Congressman and Presidential candidate
- February 17 - Marshall Teague, American race car driver (d. 1959)
- February 18 - Helen Gurley Brown, American editor and publisher
- February 24 - Richard Hamilton, British painter
- February 24 - Steven Hill, American actor
- March 1 - William Gaines, American publisher of MAD Magazine (d. 1992)
- March 1 - Yitzhak Rabin, Prime Minister of Israel, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1995)
- March 5 - Pier Paolo Pasolini, Italian film director
- March 8 - Mizuki Shigeru, Japanese author
- March 9 - Tommy Cooper, British comedian and magician (d. 1984)
- March 12 - Jack Kerouac, American author (d. 1969)
- March 12 - Lane Kirkland, American union leader (d. 1999)
- March 18 - Egon Bahr, German politician
- March 20 - Carl Reiner, American film director, producer, actor, and comedian
- March 21 - Russ Meyer, American film director and producer (d. 2004)
- March 27 - Stefan Wul, French writer (d. 2003)
- March 28 - Felice Chiusano, Italian singer (Quartetto Cetra)
- March 28 - Joey Maxim, American boxer (d. 2001)
- March 31 - Richard Kiley, American actor and singer (d. 1999)

April-June

- April 1 - William Manchester, American writer (d. 2004)
- April 3 - Maurice Riel, Canadian Senator
- April 4 - Elmer Bernstein, American composer (d. 2004)
- April 5 - Sir Tom Finney, English footballer
- April 5 - Christopher Hewett, British actor (d. 2001)
- April 5 - Gale Storm, American singer and actress
- April 7 - Mongo Santamaria, Cuban jazz musician (d. 2003)
- April 13 - Julius Nyerere, President of Tanzania (d. 1999)
- April 16 - Sir Kingsley Amis, English novelist (d. 1995)
- April 22 - Charles Mingus, American musician (d. 1979)
- April 28 - Alistair MacLean, Scottish writer (d. 1987)
- May 7 - Darren McGavin, American actor
- May 14 - Franjo Tuđman, President of Croatia (d. 1999)
- May 15 - Setouchi Jakucho, Japanese writer and Buddhist nun
- May 18 - Kai Winding, Danish-born musician (d. 1983)
- May 21 - James Lopez Watson, American judge (d. 2001)
- May 22 - Quinn Martin, American television producer (d. 1987)
- May 25 - Enrico Berlinguer, Italian politician (d. 1984)
- May 27 - Christopher Lee, English actor
- May 28 - Lou Duva, American boxing trainer
- May 29 - Iannis Xenakis, Greek composer (d. 2001)
- May 30 - Hal Clement, American writer (d. 2003)
- May 31 - Denholm Elliott, English actor (d. 1992)
- June 1 - Povel Ramel, Swedish musican
- June 2 - Charlie Sifford, American golfer
- June 10 - Judy Garland, American singer and actress (d. 1969)
- June 18 - Claude Helffer, French pianist (d. 2004)
- June 19 - Aage Niels Bohr, Danish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- June 24 - Tata Giacobetti, Italian singer and lyricist (Quartetto Cetra)
- June 29 - Vasko Popa, Yugoslavian poet (d. 1991)

July to December

- July 15 - Leon M. Lederman, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- July 18 - Thomas Kuhn, American philosopher of science (d. 1996)
- July 19 - Tuanku Jaafar ibni Almarhum Tuanku Abdul Rahman, King of Malaysia
- July 31 - Bill Kaysing, American writer
- August 15 - Lukas Foss, German-born composer
- August 17 - Agostinho Neto, Angolan politician (d. 1979)
- August 22 - Sosuke Uno, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1998)
- August 23 - George Kell, baseball player
- September 1 - Vittorio Gassmann, Italian actor and director (d. 2000)
- September 3 - Salli Terri, Canadian mezzo-soprano (d. 1996)
- September 8 - Sid Caesar, American actor and comedian
- September 9 - Hans Georg Dehmelt, German-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- September 12 - Jackson Mac Low, American poet (d. 2004)
- September 15 - Jackie Cooper, American actor and director
- September 22 - Chen Ning Yang, Chinese-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- September 25 - Hammer DeRoburt, first President of Nauru (d. 1992)
- October 1 - Burke Marshall, American lawyer and politician (d. 2003)
- October 5 - José Froilán González, Argentine race car driver
- October 15 - Luigi Giussani, Italian Catholic priest (d. 2005)
- October 22 - John Chafee, American politician (d. 1999)
- October 27 - Poul Bundgaard, Danish actor and singer (d. 1998)
- October 31 - Barbara Bel Geddes, film and stage actress (d. 2005)
- November 8 - Christiaan Barnard, South African surgeon (d. 2001)
- November 11 - Kurt Vonnegut, American novelist
- November 14 - Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egyptian Secretary General of the United Nations
- November 14 - Veronica Lake, American actress
- November 16 - José Saramago, Portuguese author, Nobel Prize laureate
- November 17 - Stanley Cohen, American physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- November 19 - Yuri Knorosov, Russian linguist and epigrapher (d. 1999)
- November 26 - Charles M. Schulz American cartoonist (d. 2000)
- December 11 - Dilip Kumar, Indian actor
- December 14 - Nikolay Basov, Russian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2001)
- December 22 - Barbara Billingsley, American actress
- December 22 - Jack Brooks, American politician
- December 23 - Micheline Ostermeyer, French athlete and musician (d. 2001)
- December 23 - Donald Tennant, American advertising agency executive (d.2001)
- December 28 - Stan Lee, American comics creator

Deaths

- January 5 - Ernest Shackleton, Irish explorer (b. 1874)
- January 22 - Pope Benedict XV (b. 1854)
- January 22 - Fredrik Bajer, Danish politician and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1837)
- February 2 - William Desmond Taylor, Irish-born film director (b. 1872)
- March 1 - Rafael Moreno Aranzadi, Spanish footballer (b. 1892)
- March 24 - Walter Parr, British preacher (b. 1871)
- April 1 - Emperor Karl I of Austria (b. 1887)
- April 2 - Hermann Rorschach, Swiss psychiatrist (b. 1884)
- May 18 - Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran, French physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1845)
- May 19 - Son, Byong-Hi, Korean leader of the March 1st Movement (b. 1861)
- June 6 - Lillian Russell, American singer and actress (b. 1861)
- June 18 - Jacobus Kapteyn, Dutch astronomer (b. 1851)
- June 26 - Albert I of Monaco (b. 1848)
- July 20 - Andrey Markov, Russian mathematician (b. 1856)
- August 2 - Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-born inventor (b. 1847)
- August 5 - Harry Boland, Irish republican (b. 1887)
- August 12 - Arthur Griffith, President of Ireland (b. 1871)
- August 22 - Michael Collins, Irish leader (assassinated) (b. 1890)
- September 4 - Sarah L. Winchester, builder of the Winchester Mystery House (b. 1837)
- October 30 - Géza Gárdonyi, Hungarian author (b. 1863)
- November 7 - Sam Thompson, baseball player (b. 1860)

Marriages

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Niels Henrik David Bohr
- Chemistry - Francis William Aston
- Medicine - Archibald Vivian Hill, Otto Fritz Meyerhof
- Literature - Jacinto Benavente
- Peace - Fridtjof Nansen

Heads of state in 1922

- Albania -
- Xhafer Ypi, Prime Minister of Albania (acting, 1922).
- Ahmet Zogu, Prime Minister of Albania (acting, 1922 - 1924).
- Belgium - King Albert I of Belgium (1909 - 1934).
- Bolshevist Russia/Soviet Union - Mikhail Kalinin, President of the Soviet Union (1919/1922 - 1946).
- Costa Rica - Julio Acosta García, President of Costa Rica (1920 - 1924).
- Denmark - King Christian X of Denmark (1912 - 1947).
- Egypt - King Fuad I of Egypt (1917/1922 - 1936).
- Ethiopia - Empress Zawditu of Ethiopia (1916 - 1930).
- France - Alexandre Millerand, President of France (1920 - 1924).
- Germany - Friedrich Ebert, Reich President (1919 - 1925).
- Italy - King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy (1900 - 1946).
- Japan - Yoshihito, the Taisho Emperor (1912 - 1926).
- Mexico - Álvaro Obregón, President of Mexico (1920 - 1924).
- Monaco -
- Reigning Prince Albert I of Monaco (1889 - 1922).
- Reigning Prince Louis II of Monaco (1922- 1949).
- Netherlands - Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands (1890 - 1948).
- Norway - King Haakon VII of Norway (1905 - 1957).
- Ottoman Empire -
- Sultan Mehmed VI (1918 - 1922).
- Caliph Abdul Mejid II (1922 - 1924).
- Republic of China -
- Xu Shichang of the Beijing government, President of the Republic of China (1918 - 1922).
- Sun Yat-sen of the Guangzhou government, rival President of the Republic of China (1921 - 1925).
- Saudi Arabia - Ibn Saud, King of Saudi Arabia (1902 - 1953).
- Sweden - King Gustav V of Sweden (1907 - 1950).
- United Kingdom - King George V of the United Kingdom (1910 - 1936).
- United States - Warren Gamaliel Harding, President of the United States (1921 - 1923).

1847

1847 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar).

Events

January

- January 4 - Samuel Colt sells his first hoe to the United States government.
- January 13 - The art of T-bagging ends the Mexican-American War in California.
- January 16 - John C. Fremont is appointed Governor of the new California Territory.
- January 30 - Yerba Buena, California is renamed San Francisco.

February

- February 22 - Mexican-American War: The Battle of Buena Vista - 5,000 American troops under General Zachary Taylor use their superiority in artillery to drive off 15,000 Mexican troops under Antonio López de Santa Anna defeating the Mexicans the next day.

March

- March 1 - Faustin Soulouque declares himself Emperor of Haiti
- March 9 - Mexican-American War: United States forces under General Winfield Scott invade Mexico near Veracruz.
- March 29 - Mexican-American War: United States forces led by General Winfield Scott take Veracruz after a siege.

May

- May 7 - In Philadelphia, the American Medical Association (AMA) is founded.

June

- June 1 – First communist congress in London

July

- July 1 - The United States issues its first postage stamps.
- July 24 - After 17 months of travel, Brigham Young leads 148 Mormon pioneers into Salt Lake Valley, resulting in the establishment of Salt Lake City.
- July 26 - Liberia gains independence.

August

- August 12 – US troops of general Winfield Scott begin to advance along the aqueduct around Chalco and Xochimilco lakes in Mexico
- August 20 – US troops defeat Mexican troops in Valencia, Mexico

September

- September 6 - Henry David Thoreau leaves Walden Pond and moves in with Ralph Waldo Emerson and his family in Concord, Massachusetts.

October

- October 12 - German inventor and industrialist Werner von Siemens founds Siemens AG & Halske.
- October 28 - Donner Party, a caravan of settlers from Illinois to California, is stuck near what is now Donner Lake due to heavy snowstorm. They will be rescued February 19 1848

Undated

- Ottoman Empire cedes Abadan Island to the Persian Empire.
- Abd al-Kader is captured and imprisoned by the French.
- Founding of the Architectural Association School of Architecture

Ongoing events

- Mexican-American War (1846-1848)
- Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)

Births

- Michel-Joseph Maunoury, French Gereral during WWI (d. 1923)
- Wong Fei Hung, Chinese healer and revolutionary (d. 1924)
- February 11 - Thomas Alva Edison, American inventor (d. 1931)
- February 15 - Robert Fuchs, Austrian composer (d. 1927)
- March 3 - Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-born inventor (d. 1922)
- March 27 - Otto Wallach, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1931)
- April 10 - Joseph Pulitzer, Hungarian-born journalist and newspaper publisher (d. 1911)
- May 7 - Archibald Primrose, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1929)
- June 11 - Millicent Fawcett, British suffragist and feminist (d. 1929)
- July 25 - Paul Langerhans, German pathologist and biologist (d. 1888)
- September 5 - Jesse James, American outlaw (d. 1882)
- October 2 - Paul von Hindenburg, President of Germany (d. 1934)
- November 26 - Dagmar of Denmark, empress of Tsar Alexander III of Russia (d. 1928)
- December 7 - George Grossmith, English actor and comic writer (d. 1912)
- December 18 - Augusta Holmès, French composer (d. 1903)

Exact month/day of birth unknown

- Hale Johnson, American temperance movement leader (d. 1902)

Deaths

- January 19 - Charles Bent, first Governor of New Mexico Territory (assassinated)
- March 9 - Mary Anning, British paleontologist (b. 1799)
- March 11 - Johnny Appleseed, American pioneer agronomist (b. 1774)
- April 30 - Archduke Charles, Austrian general (b. 1771)
- May 14 - Fanny Mendelssohn, German composer and pianist (b. 1805)
- May 29 - Emmanuel, marquis de Grouchy, French marshal (b. 1766)
- September 13 - Nicolas Oudinot, French marshal (b. 1767)
- October 3 - Charles Hatchett, English chemist (b. 1765)
- October 22 - Negus Sahle Selassie of Shewa Category:1847 ko:1847년 ms:1847 simple:1847

1916

1916 (MCMXVI) is a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar)

Events

January-February

- January 1 -The first successful blood transfusion using blood that had been stored and cooled. Impressionist Monet paints 'Water Lilies'.
- January 5 - Heavy rain - allegedly caused by rainmaker Charles Hatfield - begins; it will cause flooding around San Diego, California
- January 8 - Allied forces withdraw from Gallipoli
- January 13/14 - A heavy storm sweeps through the Zuiderzee in the Netherlands, causing extensive damage. This storm helped the Dutch parliament to decide to build the Afsluitdijk and build polders in the current IJsselmeer.
- January 17 - The Professional Golfers Association (PGA) is formed
- January 18 - A 611 gram chondrite type meteorite struck a house near Baxter, Stone County, Missouri.
- January 23 to 24 In Browning, Montana, the temperature drops from +6.7°C to -48.8°C (44°F to -56°F) in one day, the greatest change ever on record for a 24-hour period.
- January 24 - In Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad the Supreme Court of the United States declares the federal income tax void
- January 28 - Louis D. Brandeis becomes the first Jew appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States.
- January 29 - World War I: Paris is bombed by German zeppelins for the first time.
- February 2 - Blizzard in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- February 3 - Parliament buildings in Ottawa, Canada are burned down.
- February 9 - 6.00 PM - Tristan Tzara "founds" Dadaism (according to Hans Arp
- February 11 - Emma Goldman is arrested for lecturing on birth control.
- February 11 - Baltimore Symphony Orchestra presents its first concert
- February 21 - World War I: In France the Battle of Verdun begins.

March-June

- March 1 - Liberal British Columbia Premier Harlan Carey Brewster term in office ends
- March 6 - Sydney conservatorium of music in Australia accepts first students
- March 8-9 night - Mexican Revolution - Pancho Villa leads 1,500 Mexican raiders in an attack against Columbus, New Mexico, killing 17. Garrison of US 13th Cavalry Regiment fights back and drives them away.
- March 15 - President Woodrow Wilson sends 12,000 United States troops over the U.S.-Mexico border border to pursue Pancho Villa; 13th Cavalry regiment enters Mexican territory.
- March 16 - US 7th and 10th cavalry regiments under John J. Pershing crosses the border to join the hunt of Villa
- March 19 - First United States air combat mission in history as eight US planes take off in pursuit of Pancho Villa
- March 22 - Marriage of Edith Bratt and John Ronald Reuel Tolkien. They would serve as the inspiration for the fictional characters Lúthien and Beren.
- April 24 - April 30 - Easter Rising in Ireland
- April 27 - Battle of Hulluch in World War One, 47th Brigade, 16th Irish Division decimated in one of the most heavily-concentrated gas attacks of the war
- May 5 - United States Marines invade the Dominican Republic.
- May 20 - The Saturday Evening Post publishes its first cover with a Norman Rockwell painting ("Boy with Baby Carriage").
- May 21 - Sir Ernest Shackleton and two of his companions reach a whaling station to get help for the rest of the crew of Endurance.
- May 21 - Britain initiates daylight saving time.
- May 31 - June 1 - Battle of Jutland
- June 5 - Louis Brandeis is sworn in as a Justice of the United States Supreme Court.
- June 5 - HMS Hampshire sinks off the Orkneys, Scotland, with Lord Kitchener aboard
- June 15 - U.S. President Woodrow Wilson signs a bill incorporating the Boy Scouts of America. [http://www.scouting.org/factsheets/02-507.html]

July-August

- July 1 - November 18: More than 1 million soldiers die during The Battle of the Somme including 60,000 soldiers from the British Commonwealth on the first day. The United States is still unwilling to join in the war with Britain, Canada, Australia and the other commonwealth countries.
- July 1 through July 12, at least one shark mauled five swimmers along 80 miles of New Jersey coastline during the Jersey Shore Shark Attacks of 1916, resulting in four deaths and survival of one youth who required limb amputation. This event was the inspiration for author Peter Benchley, over half a century later, to write Jaws.
- July 15 - In Seattle, Washington, William Boeing incorporates Pacific Aero Products (later renamed Boeing).
- July 16 - Hellenic Holocaust: The entire Greek population of Sinope and the coastal region of the county of Kastanome is either exiled or killed.
- July 22 - In San Francisco, California, a bomb explodes on Market Street during a Preparedness Day parade killing 10 injuring 40. (Warren Billings and Tom Mooney are later wrongly convicted of it)
- July 29 - In Ontario, Canada, a lightning strike ignites a forest fire that destroys the towns of Cochrane and Matheson - 233 dead
- 2 August - World War I: Austrian sabotage causes the sinking of Italian battleship Leonardo da Vinci in Taranto.

October-December

Taranto.]]
- October 27 - Battle of Segale: Negus Mikael, marching on the Ethiopian capital in support of his son Emperor Iyasu, is defeated by Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis, securing the throne for Empress Zauditu.
- November 5 - Kingdom of Poland proclaimed by joined act of emperors of Germany and Austria
- November 7 - Woodrow Wilson defeats Charles E. Hughes in the U.S. presidential election.
- November 7 - Republican Jeannette Rankin of Montana becomes the first woman elected to the United States House of Representatives.
- November 13 - Prime Minister of Australia William Morris Hughes is expelled from the Labor Party over his support for conscription.
- November 18 - World War I: First Battle of the Somme ends - In France, British Expeditionary Force commander Douglas Haig calls off the battle which started on July 1, 1916.
- November 25 - Friedrich Adler shoots Karl Stürgh, prime minister of Austria
- November 30 - Hellenic Holocaust: According to the Austrian consul: "on 26 November Rafet Bey (Turkish Minister of the Interior) told me: "we must finish off the Greeks as we did with the Armenians … on 28 November.""
- December 12 - In the Dolomites, an avalanche buries 18,000 Austrian and Italian soldiers.
- December 30 - Humberto Gómez and his mercenaries seize Arauca in Colombia and declare Republic of Arauca. He proceeds to pillage the region before fleeing to Venezuela
- December 23 - World War I: Battle of Magdhaba - In the Sinai desert, Australian and New Zealand mounted troops capture the Turkish garrison.
- December 31 - The Hampton Terrace Hotel in North Augusta, South Carolina, one of the largest and most luxurious hotels in the nation at the time, burns to the ground.

Unknown dates

- Hipolito Irigoyen elected as the President of Argentina.
- Blaise Diagre, first black representative of Senegal in the French parliament
- Cours de linguistique générale by Ferdinand de Saussure is published.
- Summer Olympic Games in Berlin, Germany, are cancelled.
- Food is rationed in Germany.
- Ernst Rudin published his initial results on the genetics of schizophrenia.
- The Netherlands is hit by a North Sea storm that floods lowlands and kills 10.000 people.
- Woman's International Bowling Congress established in the US.
- Robert Baden-Powell founds Wolf Scouts in Britain, changed to Cub Scouts in the USA.
- Sopwith Camel aircraft is introduced to combat the German-built Fokker fighter aircraft.
- Louis Enricht claims he has a substitute for gasoline
- Gustav Holst composes The Planets, Opus 32
- Bray Studios created the Farmer Alfalfa series, the first of theTerrytoons.

Ongoing events

- World War I (1914-1918)
- Armenian Genocide (1915-1918)
- Mexican Revolution

Births

January-March

- January 3 - Betty Furness, American actress and consumer activist (d. 1994)
- January 7 - Paul Keres, Estonian chess player
- January 9 - Peter Twinn, English mathematician and World War II code-breaker (d. 2004)
- January 10 - Sune Bergström, Swedish biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2004)
- January 12 - Pieter Willem Botha, President of South Africa
- January 22 - Henri Dutilleux, French composer
- February 9 - Tex Hughson, baseball player (d. 1993)
- February 11 - Joseph Alioto, Mayor of San Francisco (d. 1998)
- February 14 - Masaki Kobayashi, Japanese film director
- February 26 - Jackie Gleason, American comedian (d. 1987)
- February 29 - Dinah Shore, American singer (d. 1994)
- March 3 - Paul Halmos, Hungarian-born mathematician
- March 4 - Hans Eysenck, German-born psychologist (d. 1997)
- March 11 - Harold Wilson, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1995)
- March 13 - John Aspinwall Roosevelt, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1981)
- March 14 - Horton Foote, American writer
- March 15 - Harry James, American musician and band leader (d. 1983)
- March 17 - Ray Ellington, British singer (d. 1985)
- March 19 - Irving Wallace, American novelist (d. 1990)
- March 26 - Christian B. Anfinsen, American chemist, Christian B. Anfinsen laureate (d. 1995)
- March 29 - Eugene McCarthy, U.S. Senator from Minnesota (d. 2005)

April-June

- April 3 - Herb Caen, American journalist (d. 1997)
- April 5 - Gregory Peck, American actor (d. 2003)
- April 11 - Alberto Ginastera, Argentine composer (d. 1983)
- April 12 - Beverly Cleary, American author
- April 15 - Alfred S. Bloomingdale, American department store heir (d. 1982)
- April 22 - Yehudi Menuhin, American-born violinist (d. 1999)
- April 25 - R.J. Rushdoony, American founder of Christian Reconstructionism (d. 2001)
- April 28 - Ferruccio Lamborghini, Italian automobile manufacturer (d. 1993)
- April 30 - Claude Elwood Shannon, American information theorist (d. 2001)
- April 30 - Robert Shaw, American conductor (d. 1999)
- May 8 - João Havelange, Brazilian industrialist and football league president
- May 10 - Milton Babbitt, American composer
- May 11 - Camilo José Cela, Spanish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)
- May 20 - Trebisonda Valla, Italian athlete
- May 21 - Tinus Osendarp, Dutch runner (d. 2002)
- May 21 - Harold Robbins, American novelist (d. 1997)
- May 26 - Henriette Roosenburg, Dutch journalist (d. 1972)
- June 4 - Robert F. Furchgott, American chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- June 8 - Francis Crick, English molecular biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2004)
- June 15 - Herbert Simon, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2001)
- June 18 - Julio César Turbay Ayala, Colombian politician (d. 2005)
- June 23 - Hermann Gmeiner, Austrian educator (d. 1986)
- June 23 - Len Hutton, English cricketer (d. 1990)

July-December

- July 2 - Hans-Ulrich Rudel, German pilot (d. 1982)
- July 9 - Sir Edward Heath, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 2005)
- July 11 - Aleksandr Mikhailovich Prokhorov, Russian physicist, Nobel laureate (d. 2002)
- July 11 - Gough Whitlam, twenty-first Prime Minister of Australia
- July 14 - Natalia Ginzburg, Italian author (d. 1991)
- July 18 - L. Patrick Gray III, director of the American Federal Bureau of Investigation (d. 2005)
- July 22 - Marcel Cerdan, French boxer (d. 1949)
- July 31 - Bill Todman, American game show producer (d. 1979)
- August 25 - Frederick Chapman Robbins, American pediatrician and virologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2003)
- August 27 - Martha Raye, American actress (d. 1994)
- September 13 - Roald Dahl, Welsh author (d. 1990)
- October 3 - James Herriot, veterinarian and author (d. 1995)
- October 4 - Vitaly Ginzburg, Russian physicist, Nobel laureate
- October 19 - Jean Dausset, French immunologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- October 19 - Emil Gilels, Ukrainian pianist (d. 1994)
- October 26 - François Mitterrand, President of France (d. 1996)
- October 30 - Leon Day, baseball player (d. 1995)
- November 1 - John C. Harkness, American architect
- November 4 - Walter Cronkite, American television journalist
- November 5 - Jim Tabor, baseball player
- November 10 - Louis le Brocquy, Irish painter
- November 16 - Daws Butler, American voice actor
- November 24 - Forrest J. Ackerman, American writer
- November 27 - Chick Hearn, American basketball announcer (d. 2002)
- November 28 - Mary Lilian Baels, queen of Léopold III of the Belgians (d. 2002)
- November 29 - Fran Ryan, American actress (d. 2000)
- December 9 - Kirk Douglas, American actor
- December 11 - Dámaso Pérez Prado, Cuban musician (d. 1989)
- December 15 - Maurice Wilkins, New Zealand-born physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2004)
- December 19 - Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, German political scientist
- Jack Agazarian, English World War II spy (d. 1945)

Deaths

- February 6 - Rubén Darío, Nicaraguan writer (b. 1867)
- February 12 - Richard Dedekind, German mathematician (b. 1831)
- February 19 - Ernst Mach, Austrian physicist and philosopher (b. 1838)
- February 20 - Klas Pontus Arnoldson, Swedish writer and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1844)
- February 28 - Henry James, American writer (b. 1843)
- March 4 - Franz Marc, German artist (b. 1880)
- March 24 - Enrique Granados, Spanish composer (ship sinking) (b. 1867)
- April 19 - Ephraim Shay, American inventor (b. 1839)
- May 3 - Padraig Pearse, Irish nationalist (b. 1879)
- May 11 - Max Reger, German composer (b. 1873)
- May 13 - Sholom Aleichem, Ukrainian Yiddish writer (b. 1859)
- June 6 - Yuan Shikai, Chinese military official and politician (b. 1859)
- June 29 - Georges Lacombe, French artist (b. 1868)
- July 6 - Odilon Redon, French painter (b. 1840)
- July 16 - Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, Russian microbiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1845)
- July 23 - Sir William Ramsay, Scottish chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1852)
- August 31 - Martha McClellan Brown, American temperance movement leader (b. 1838)
- September 4 - José Echegaray y Eizaguirre, Spanish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1832)
- October 7 - James Whitcomb Riley, American poet (b. 1849)
- October 28 - Cleveland Abbe, American meteorologist (b. 1838)
- November 13 - Lanoe Hawker, British fighter pilot (b. 1890)
- November 14 - Saki, British writer (b. 1870)
- November 15 - Henryk Sienkiewicz, Polish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1846)
- November 21 - Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria (b. 1830)
- November 22 - Jack London, American author (b. 1876)
- November 24 - Hiram Stevens Maxim, American firearms inventor (b. 1840)
- December 28 - Eduard Strauss, Austrian composer (b. 1835)
- December 29 - Grigori Rasputin, Russian mystic (b. 1870)

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - not awarded
- Chemistry - not awarded
- Medicine - not awarded
- Literature - Carl Gustaf Verner von Heidenstam
- Peace - not awarded Category:1916 ko:1916년 ja:1916年 simple:1916 th:พ.ศ. 2459

1881

1881 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events

January - April

- January 16-January 24 - Siege of Geok Tepe - Russian troops under general Skobeleff defeat Turkomans
- January 24 - William Edward Forster, the chief secretary for Ireland, introduces his Coercion Bill - it goes through a long debate before it is accepted February 2
- January 25 - Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell form the Oriental Telephone Company
- February 5 - Phoenix, Arizona is incorporated.
- February 13 - First issue of the feminist newspaper La Citoyenne is published by Hubertine Auclert.
- February 19 - Kansas became the first U.S. state to prohibit all alcoholic beverages.
- March 4 - Rutherford Birchard Hayes is succeeded as President of the United States by James Abram Garfield.
- March 12 - Andrew Watson makes his Scotland debut as the world's first black international football player and captain.
- March 13 - Alexander II of Russia is killed near his palace when a bomb is thrown at him. He is succeeded by his son, Alexander III.
- March 16 - Fenian dynamiters hit Mansion House in London.
- April 21 - The University of Connecticut is founded as the Storrs Agricultural School.
- April 25 - Caulfield Grammar School is founded in Melbourne, Australia.
- April 28 - Billy the Kid escapes from New Mexico jail.

May - August

- May 12 - In North Africa, Tunisia becomes a French protectorate.
- May 21 - The American Red Cross is established by Clara Barton.
- May 21 - The United States Tennis Association is established by a small group of tennis club members.
- June 12 - The USS Jeannette is crushed in an Arctic Ocean ice pack.
- July 1 - General Order 70, the culmination of the Cardwell-Childers reforms of the British Army's organisation, came into effect.
- July 2 - James Abram Garfield, President of the United States is shot by lawyer Charles Julius Guiteau. He survives the assassination attempt but he suffers from infection of his wound.
- July 4 - In Alabama, the Tuskegee Institute opens.
- July 20 - Indian Wars: Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his fugitive people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana.

September - December

- September 5 - The Thumb Fire in the U.S. state of Michigan destroys over a million acres (4,000 km²) and kills 282 people.
- September 19 - James Abram Garfield, President of the United States dies due to an infected wound caused by an assassin's bullet and is succeeded by Vice President Chester Alan Arthur.
- October 26 - Gunfight at the O.K. Corral in Tombstone, Cochise County, Arizona, USA.
- October 29 - The Judge (US magazine) first published.
- November 19 - A meteorite struck earth near the village of Großliebenthal, a few kilometers southwest of Odessa, Ukraine.
- December 8 - At least 620 die in fire at Ring Theatre, Vienna

Unknown date

- Founding of the Pali Text Society
- University College Dublin is established in Ireland
- The United States National Lawn Tennis Association (USNLTA) is founded, and the first U.S. Tennis Championships are played.
- Founding of the League of the Three Emperors
- London Evening News begins publication
- Some Vatican archives opened to scholars for the first time
- Abilene, Texas is founded.
- Leyton Orient F.C. is Founded

Births

- January 6 - Sam Rayburn, Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1961)
- January 9 - Lascelles Abercrombie, English poet and critic (d. 1938)
- January 17 - Antoni Łomnicki, Polish mathematician (d. 1941)
- January 31 - Irving Langmuir, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957)
- February 12 - Anna Pavlova, Russian ballerina (d. 1931)
- March 17 - Walter Rudolf Hess, Swiss physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973)
- March 23 - Roger Martin du Gard, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958)
- March 23 - Hermann Staudinger, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1965)
- March 25 - Béla Bartók, Hungarian composer (d. 1945)
- March 25 - Mary Gladys Webb, English writer (d. 1927)
- May 1 - Mary MacLane, Canadian-born feminist writer (d. 1929)
- June 17 - Tommy Burns, Canadian-born boxer (d. 1955)
- July 4 - Ulysses S. Grant III, American soldier and planner (d. 1968)
- July 27 - Hans Fischer, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1945)
- July 30 - Smedley Butler, U.S. general (d. 1940)
- August 6 - Sir Alexander Fleming, Scottish researcher, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1955)
- August 19 - Georges Enescu, Romanian composer (d. 1955)
- August 20 - Edgar Guest, English poet (d. 1959)
- September 8 - Harry Hillman, American athlete (d. 1945)
- September 16 - Clive Bell, English art critic (d. 1964)
- September 17 - Alfred Francis Blakeney Carpenter, English soldier (d. 1955)
- October 1 - William Boeing, American engineer and airplane manufacturer (d. 1956)
- October 11 - Hans Kelsen, Austrian legal theorist (d. 1973)
- October 15 - P. G. Wodehouse, English-born writer (d. 1975)
- October 22 - Clinton Davisson, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958)
- October 25 - Pablo Picasso, Spanish painter (d. 1973)
- November 14 - Nicholas Schenck, Russian-born film studio executive (d. 1969)
- November 24 - Al Christie, Canadian-born director and producer (d. 1951)
- November 25 - Pope John XXIII (d. 1963)
- December 24 - Juan Ramón Jiménez, Spanish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958)
- Antoni Józef Śmieszek, Polish Egyptologist and linguist (d. 1943)
- William Temple, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1944)
- Hiram Wesley Evans, American leader of KKK and prohibitionist, (d. 1966)
- Kemal Atatürk, founder and the first President of Turkey (d. 1938)

Deaths

- January 3 - Anna McNeill Whistler, Whistler's mother (b. 1804)
- January 21 - Wilhelm Matthias Naeff, member of the Swiss Federal Council (b. 1802)
- February 5 - Thomas Carlyle, Scottish writer and historian (b. 1795)
- February 9 - Fyodor Dostoevsky, Russian novelist (b. 1821)
- March 13 - Czar Alexander II of Russia (b. 1818)
- March 28 - Modest Mussorgsky, Russian composer (b. 1839)
- April 19 - Benjamin Disraeli, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1804)
- May 24 - Samuel Palmer, English artist (b. 1805)
- June 6 - Henri Vieuxtemps, Belgian composer (b. 1820)
- July 17 - Jim Bridger, American explorer and trapper (b. 1804)
- July 18 - Billy the Kid, American gunslinger (b. 1859)
- September 7 - Sidney Lanier, American writer (b. 1842)
- September 19 - James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States (assassinated) (b. 1831)
- September 22 - Solomon L. Spink, U.S. Congressman from Illinois (b. 1831)
- October 3 - Orson Pratt, American religious leader (b. 1811)
- October 31 - George DeLong, American naval officer and explorer (starvation) (b. 1844)

Trivia

1881 was the only year in which three different U.S. Presidents occupied the White House: Rutherford B. Hayes, James A. Garfield, and Chester A. Arthur. Category:1881 ko:1881년 ms:1881 simple:1881 th:พ.ศ. 2424

1885

1885 is a common year starting on Thursday.

Events

January

- January 4 - The first successful appendectomy is performed by Dr. William W. Grant on Mary Gartside.
- January 20 - L.A. Thompson patents the roller coaster.
- January 26 - Troops loyal to the Mahdi conquer Khartoum

February

- February 5 - King Léopold II of Belgium establishes the Congo Free State as a personal possession.
- February 9 - The first Japanese arrive in Hawaii.
- February 18 - Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is published for the first time.
- February 21 - US president Chester A. Arthur dedicates the Washington Monument
- February 23 - British executioner fails to hang John Lee, sentenced of the murder of Emma Keyse. Sentence is commuted to life imprisonment
- February 26 - Final Act of the Berlin Conference regulates European colonisation and trade in Africa.

March

- March-May - North-West Rebellion took place and was put down in Canada.
- March 3 - A subsidiary of the American Bell Telephone Company, American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T), is incorporated in New York.
- March 4 - Grover Cleveland replaces Chester A. Arthur as President of the United States.
- March 14 - W.S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan's The Mikado opens at the Savoy Theatre.
- March 26 - The Times reports that "A lady well-known in literary and scientific circles" has been cremated by the Cremation Society in Woking, Surrey. Jeannette C. Pickersgill was the first person to be officially cremated in the United Kingdom
- March 30 - Pandjeh Incident - Russian force routs Afghan troops and drive them across the Pul-iKhishti bridge
- March 31 - The United Kingdom establishes a protectorate over Bechuanaland.

May

- May 2
- Good Housekeeping magazine goes on sale for the first time.
- Cree and Assiniboine warriors won the Battle of Cut Knife, their largest victory over Canadian forces during the North-West Rebellion.
- The Congo Free State is established by King Léopold II of Belgium.
- May 9-12 - Canadian government forces inflict decisive defeat on Métis rebels at the Battle of Batoche.

June

- June 17 - The Statue of Liberty arrives in New York Harbor.
- June 24 - Randolph Churchill becomes Secretary of State for India

July

- July 6 - Louis Pasteur successfully tests his vaccine against rabies. The patient is Joseph Meister; a boy who was bitten by a rabid dog.
- July 20 - Professional football legalized in Britain

September

- September 2 - In Rock Springs, Wyoming, 150 white miners attack their Chinese coworkers, killing 28, wounding 15, and forcing several hundred more out of town.
- September 6 - Eastern Rumelia declares its union with Bulgaria. The Unification of Bulgaria is accomplished.
- September 18 - Union of Eastern Rumelia with Bulgaria proclaimed at Plovdiv.
- September 30 - A British force abolishes the Boer republic of Stellaland and adds it to British Bechuanaland.

November

- November 7 - Canadian Pacific Railway finished: In Craigellachie, British Columbia, construction ends on a railway extending across Canada. Prime Minister John A. Macdonald considered the project to be vital to Canada.
- November 11 - George S. Patton, Jr. Born in San Gabriel, California.
- November 14-28 - Serbo-Bulgarian War: Serbia declares war against Bulgaria but is defeated in Battle of Slivnitsa on November 17-19.
- November 16 - Canadian rebel leader of the Métis, Louis Riel is executed for high treason.

December

- December 1 - The US Patent Office acknowledges this date as the day Dr Pepper was served for the very first time; the exact date of Dr Pepper's invention is unknown.
- December 28 - 72 Indian lawyers, academicians and journalists gather in Bombay to form the Congress Party

Unknown Dates

- Creation of the first genuine bicycle, the Rover, by John K Starley.
- John Boyd Dunlop invents the pneumatic tire.
- Cholera epidemic in Spain – one of the victims is the king Alfonso XII
- Third Burmese War begins
- Sitting Bull joins Buffalo Bill
- Nikola Tesla sells a number of his patents to George Westinghouse
- William Stanley, Jr. builds the first practical alternating current transformer device, the induction coil.
- Local anesthetic
- First skyscraper – Home Insurance Building in Chicago, Illinois, USA (10 floors)
- Bicycle Playing Cards first produced

Births

- January 6 - Florence Turner, American actress (d. 1946)
- January 8 - John Curtin, Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1945)
- January 11 - Alice Paul, American women's rights activist (d. 1977)
- January 21 - Umberto Nobile, Italian politician and airship designer (d. 1978)
- January 27 - Jerome Kern, American composer (d. 1945)
- January 27 - Eduard Künnecke, German composer (d. 1953)
- January 29 - Leadbelly, American musician (d. 1949)
- February 7 - Sinclair Lewis, American writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1951)
- February 9 - Alban Berg, Austrian composer (d. 1935)
- February 13 - Bess Truman, First Lady of the United States (d. 1982)
- February 15 - Princess Alice of Battenberg (d. 1969)
- February 21 - Sacha Guitry, Russian-born dramatist, writer, director, and actor (d. 1957)
- February 24 - Chester Nimitz, U.S. admiral (d. 1966)
- February 24 - Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz, Polish writer and painter (d. 1939)
- March 6 - Ring Lardner, American writer (d. 1933)
- March 11 - Sir Malcolm Campbell, English land and water racer (d. 1948)
- March 14 - Raoul Lufbery, World War I American pilot (d. 1918)
- March 31 - Pascin, Bulgarian painter (d. 1930)
- April 1 - Wallace Beery, American actor (d. 1949)
- April 3 - Allan Dwan, Canadian-born film director (d. 1981)
- April 4 - Arthur Murray, American dancer (d. 1991)
- May 2 - Hedda Hopper, American columnist (d. 1966)
- May 7 - George 'Gabby' Hayes, American actor (d. 1969)
- May 14 - Otto Klemperer, German conductor (d. 1973)
- May 21 - Oscar A.C. Lund, Swedish film actor, director, and writer (d. 1963)
- May 22 - Toyoda Soemu, Japanese admiral (d. 1957)
- June 9 - John Edensor Littlewood, British mathematician (d. 1977)
- June 14 - E. L. Grant Watson, writer, anthropologist, and biologist (d. 1970)
- June 22 - Milan Vidmar, Slovenian electrical engineer and chess player (d. 1962)
- July 4 - Louis B. Mayer, American film producer (d. 1957)
- July 14 - King Sisavang Vong, King of Laos (d. 1959)
- July 28 - Monte Attell, American boxer (d. 1960)
- August 1 - George de Hevesy, Hungarian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1966)
- September 11 - D.H. Lawrence, English author (d. 1930)
- September 22 - Ben Chifley, Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1951)
- October 3 - Sophie Treadwell, American playwright and journalist

1916

1916 (MCMXVI) is a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar)

Events

January-February

March-June

July-August

October-December

Unknown dates

Ongoing events

- World War I (1914-1918)
- Armenian Genocide (1915-1918)
- Mexican Revolution

Births

January-March

April-June

July-December

Deaths

Nobel Prizes

1922

1922 (MCMXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events

Exact month/day of event unknown

Births

January-March

April-June

July to December

Deaths

Marriages

January-March

April-June

July to December

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Niels Henrik David Bohr
- Chemistry - Francis William Aston
- Medicine - Archibald Vivian Hill, Otto Fritz Meyerhof
- Literature - Jacinto Benavente
- Peace - Fridtjof Nansen

Heads of state in 1922

1911

1911 (MCMXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (click on link for calendar).

Events

January-June

- January 1 - Northern Territory is separated from South Australia
- January 3 - In London, in what becomes known as the Siege of Sidney Street, the Metropolitan Police and the Scots Guards engage in a shootout with a criminal gang of Latvian anarchists held up in a building in the East End.
- January 10 - Major Jimmie Erickson takes the first aerial photograph (over San Diego, California).
- January 18 - Eugene B. Ely lands on the deck of the USS Pennsylvania stationed in San Francisco harbor, marking the first time an aircraft landed on a ship
- January 21 - First Monte Carlo races
- January 26 - Glenn H. Curtiss flies the first successful seaplane.
- January 30 - The destroyer USS Terry makes the first airplane rescue at sea saving the life of James McCurdy 10 miles from Havana, Cuba.
- March 1 - Jose Ordonez is elected President of Uruguay.
- March 8 - International Women's Day is celebrated for the first time
- March 24 - Denmark abolishes death penalty and flogging
- March 25 - Fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory in New York City - 145 dead
- March 29 - United States Army formally adopts the M1911 pistol as its standard sidearm, thus giving the gun its 1911 designation.
- April 6 - Dedë Gjon Luli Dedvukaj, Leader of the Malësori Albanians raises the Albanian flag in the town of Tuzi, Montenegro for the first time after Gjergj Kastrioti (Skenderbeg).
- April 13 - Mexican revolution - Rebels take Aqua Prieta besides US border. Government troops take the town back April 17 when the rebel leader "Red" Lopez is drunk
- April 19 - Francisco Madero's troops besiege Ciudad Juarez but general Juan J. Navarro refuses his demand of surrender
- May 11 - Futurist exhibition in Milan was the first of efforts by the group to make its theories concrete
- May 8 - Pancho Villa launches an attack against government troops in Ciudad Juarez without Madero's permission. Government troops surrender May 10
- May 15 - The United States Supreme Court declares Standard Oil to be an "unreasonable" monopoly under the Sherman Antitrust Act and orders the company to be dissolved.
- May 17 - Porfirio Diaz is convinced to resign but he does not do it officially
- May 21 - Peace treaty between rebels of Madero and government troops in Ciudad Juarez
- May 23 - Dedication ceremony for the New York Public Library.
- May 24 - Government troops fire at anti-Diaz demonstrators in Mexico City - about 200 dead (official claim only 40)
- May 25 - Diaz signs his resignation and leaves for Veracruz. May 31 he leaves for exile in France
- May 30 - The first Indianapolis 500-mile auto race is run. The winner is Ray Harroun in the Marmon 'Wasp'.
- June 7 - Francisco Madero arrives in Mexico City just after a local earthquake
- June 14 - A national seamen's strike begins in Britain.
- June 15 - IBM incorporated as Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company in New York
- June 16 - A 772 gram stony meteorite struck earth in Columbia County, Wisconsin near the village of Kilbourn damaging a barn.
- June 22- Coronation of George V of the United Kingdom and Mary of Teck at Westminster Abbey, London.

July-October

- July 1 - German Warship Panther in the Moroccan port of Agadir triggers Agadir Crisis escalating pre-WW1 tensions. Subsequent climbdown rallies German militancy.
- July 24 - Hiram Bingham finds Machu Picchu
- August 8 - Public Law 62-5 sets the number of representatives in the United States House of Representatives at 435. The law will take effect in 1913.
- August 9 - Raunds, Northamptonshire records a temperature of 98°F (36.7°C), the highest UK temperature until 1990.
- August 10 - British MPs vote to receive salaries for the first time
- August 22 - Theft of Mona Lisa discovered in Louvre (Vincenzo Peruggia is captured and the painting returned 1913)
- September 7 - French poet Guillaume Apollinaire is arrested and put in jail on suspicion of stealing the Mona Lisa from the Louvre museum. He is later released.
- September 11 - Middle Tennessee State University is founded in Murfreesboro, Tennessee as Middle Tennessee Normal School.
- September 20 - The liner RMS Olympic, sister ship to the RMS Titanic, collides with Royal Navy cruiser HMS Hawke outside Southampton, England.
- September 29 - French navy ship Liberte explodes anchored in Toulon
- October 6 - The British Seafarers' Union was formed in Southampton in England.
- October 10 - Wuchang Uprising leads to the founding of the Republic of China.
- October 10 - Robert Laird Borden becomes Canada's eighth prime minister.
- October 16 - Felipe Diaz, nephew of Porfirio Diaz, occupies the port of Veracruz as a sign of rebellion against Madero
- October 18 - revolutionaries under Sun Yat-sen overthrew China's Manchu dynasty.
- October 28 - Foundation of The Rosicrucian Fellowship's international headquarters at Mount Ecclesia, Oceanside (California); It had been preceded by its formal constitution in August 8 1909 at Seattle (Washington).

November-December

- November 3 - Chevrolet officially enters the automobile market to compete with the Ford Model T.
- November 4 - Selandia launched in Denmark, the first ocean going diesel Ship.
- November 5 - After declaring war on Turkey on September 29, 1911, Italy annexes Tripoli and Cyrenaica (this act was confirmed by an act of the Italian Parliament on February 25, 1912).
- November 11 - A record cold snap hits the United States midwest. Many cities break record highs and lows on same day. (see The 11/11/11 cold wave).
- November 15 - Prince Louis Honoré Charles Antoine Grimaldi of Monaco, heir to the throne and later Reigning Prince Louis II of Monaco officially recognizes his illegitimate daughter Charlotte Louise Juliette Louvet as Princess Charlotte of Monaco.
- November 16 - Earthquake in Swab, South Germany
- December 11 - Coronation in New Delhi of George V of the United Kingdom and Mary of Teck as Emperor of India and Empress consort respectively
- December 12 - The capital of India was shifted to New Delhi from Calcutta (now Kolkata).
- December 14 - Roald Amundsen's expedition reaches the South Pole
- December 21 - First robbery of the Bonnot gang
- December 29 - Sun Yat-sen becomes the first President of the Republic of China

Unknown dates

- First Solvay Congress - meeting of physicists
- University of Iceland founded
- University of Wales, Bangor moved to new buildings.
- 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica published.
- End of Qing Dynasty in China.
- Rutherford deduces the existence of a compact atomic nucleus from scattering experiments.
- Onnes discovers superconductivity.

Births

January-March

- January 1 - Hank Greenberg, baseball player (d. 1986)
- January 3 - John Sturges, American film director (d. 1982)
- January 5 - Jean-Pierre Aumont, French actor (d. 2001)
- January 7 - Butterfly McQueen, American actress (d. 1995)
- January 11 - Zenko Suzuki, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 2004)
- January 13 - Joh Bjelke-Petersen, Premier of Queensland (d. 2005)
- January 17 - George Joseph Stigler, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991)
- January 22 - Bruno Kreisky, Chancellor of Austria (d. 1990)
- January 24 - C. L. Moore, American writer (d. 1987)
- January 26 - Polykarp Kusch, German-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1993)
- January 29 - Peter von Siemens, German industrialist (d. 1986)
- January 30 - Roy Eldridge, American jazz musician (d. 1989)
- February 5 - Jussi Björling, Swedish tenor (d. 1960)
- February 6 - Ronald Reagan, United States President (d. 2004)
- February 8 - Elizabeth Bishop, American poet (d. 1979)
- February 12 - Stephen H. Sholes, American recording executive (d. 1968)
- February 19 - Merle Oberon, British actress (d. 1979)
- March 3 - Jean Harlow, American actress (d. 1937)
- March 8 - Alan Hovhaness, American composer (d. 2000)
- March 13 - L. Ron Hubbard, American author (d. 1986)
- March 16 - Josef Mengele, Nazi Germany war criminal (d. 1979)
- March 20 - Alfonso García Robles, Mexican diplomat and politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1991)
- March 24 - Joseph Barbera, American cartoonist
- March 25 - Jack Ruby, American killer of Lee Harvey Oswald (d. 1967)
- March 26 - Bernard Katz, German-born biophysicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2003)
- March 26 - Tennessee Williams, American playwright (d. 1983)
- March 29 - Brigitte Horney, German-born actress (d. 1988)
- March 31 - Elisabeth Grümmer, Alsatian soprano (d. 1986)

April-June

- April 5 - Jussi Björling, Swedish tenor (d. 1960)
- April 6 - Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, German biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1979)
- April 8 - Melvin Calvin, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997)
- April 8 - Emil Cioran, Romanian philosopher and essayist (d. 1995)
- April 11 - Stanislawa Walasiewicz, Polish-born runner(d. 1980)
- April 26 - Marianne Hoppe, German actress (d. 2002)
- May 8 - Robert Johnson, American guitarist and singer (d. 1938)
- May 11 - Phil Silvers, American actor and comedian (d. 1985)
- May 11 - Doodles Weaver, American actor and comedian (d. 1983
- May 15 - Max Frisch, Swiss author (d. 1991)
- May 17 - Lisa Fonssagrives, Swedish model (d. 1992)
- May 17 - Maureen O'Sullivan, Irish actress (d. 1998)
- May 18 - Big Joe Turner, American singer (d. 1985)
- May 20 - Gardner Fox, American writer (d. 1986)
- May 20 - Milt Gabler, American record producer (d. 2001)
- May 26 - Ben Alexander, American actor (d. 1969)
- May 27 - Hubert H. Humphrey, U.S. Vice President and Senator (d. 1978)
- May 27 - Teddy Kollek, Austrian-born mayor of Jerusalem
- May 27 - Vincent Price, American actor (d. 1993)
- May 28 - Fritz Hochwälder, Austrian author (d. 1986)
- May 31 - Maurice Allais, French economicst, Nobel Prize laureate
- June 13 - Luis Alvarez, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988)
- June 24 - Juan Manuel Fangio, Argentine race car driver (d. 1995)
- June 25 - William Howard Stein, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1980)
- June 26 - Babe Didrikson Zaharias, American athlete and golfer (d. 1956)
- June 29 - Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands (d. 2004)
- June 29 - Bernard Herrmann, American composer (d. 1975)
- June 30 - Czesław Miłosz, Polish-born writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004)

July-September

- July 4 - Mitch Miller, American singer and television personality
- July 9 - Mervyn Peake, British writer and illustrator (d. 1968)
- July 16 - Ginger Rogers, American actress (d. 1995)
- July 18 - Hume Cronyn, Canadian actor (d. 2003)
- July 21 - Marshall McLuhan, Canadian author (d. 1980)
- July 27 - Lupita Tovar, Mexican actress
- August 9 - William Alfred Fowler, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995)
- August 12 - Jane Wyatt, American actress
- August 14 - Shri Vethathiri Maharishi, Indian yogi
- August 17 - Mikhail Botvinnik, Russian chess player (d. 1995)
- August 23 - Betty Robinson, American athelete (d. 1999)
- August 23 - Birger Ruud, Norwegian athelete (d. 1998)
- August 27 - Kay Walsh, British actress (d. 2005)
- September 2 - Floyd Council, American musician (d. 1976)
- September 6 - Harry Danning, baseball player (d. 2004)
- September 9 - John Gorton, nineteenth Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2002)
- September 19 - William Golding, English writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1993)
- September 23 - Frank Moss, U.S. Senator from Utah (d. 2003)

October-December

- October 13 - Ashok Kumar, Indian actor (d. 2001)
- October 14 - Le Duc Tho, Vietnamese general and politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1990)
- October 26 - Sid Gillman, American football coach (d. 2003)
- October 30 - Ruth Hussey, American actress (d. 2005)
- November 2 - Odysseas Elytis, Greek writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1996)
- November 5 - Roy Rogers, American singer and actor (d. 1998)
- November 27 - David Merrick, American theater producer (d. 2000)
- December 3 - Nino Rota, Italian composer (d. 1979)
- December 11 - Naguib Mahfouz, Egyptian writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- December 13 - Trygve Haavelmo, Norwegian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)
- December 13 - Kenneth Patchen, American poet and painter (d. 1972)
- December 23 - Niels Kaj Jerne, English-born immunologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1994)

Unknown dates

- Yolande Beekman, French-born World War II heroine (d. 1944)

Deaths

- March 1 - Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, Dutch chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1852)
- April 25 - Emilio Salgari, Italian writer (b. 1862)
- May 18 - Gustav Mahler, Austrian composer (b. 1860)
- May 21 - Williamina Fleming, Scottish astronomer (b. 1857)
- May 29 - William S. Gilbert, English dramatist (b. 1836)
- June 9 - Carrie Nation, American temperance activist (b. 1846)
- August 1 - Edwin Austin Abbey, American painter (b. 1852)
- August 8 - William P. Frye, U.S. Senator (b. 1830)
- September 16 - Edward Whymper, British explorer (b. 1840)
- October 14 - John Marshall Harlan, U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. 1833)
- October 29 - Joseph Pulitzer, Hungarian-born newspaper publisher and journalist (b. 1847)
- December 10 - Joseph Dalton Hooker, English botanist (b. 1817)

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Wilhelm Wien
- Chemistry - Maria Skłodowska-Curie
- Medicine - Allvar Gullstrand
- Literature - Count Maurice (Mooris) Polidore Marie Bernhard Maeterlinck
- Peace - Tobias Michael Carel Asser Alfred Hermann Fried

1922

1922 (MCMXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events

Exact month/day of event unknown

Births

January-March

April-June

July to December

Deaths

Marriages

January-March

April-June

July to December

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Niels Henrik David Bohr
- Chemistry - Francis William Aston
- Medicine - Archibald Vivian Hill, Otto Fritz Meyerhof
- Literature - Jacinto Benavente
- Peace - Fridtjof Nansen

Heads of state in 1922

1881

1881 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events

January - April

May - August

September - December

Unknown date

Births

Deaths

Trivia

Prime Minister

A prime minister may be either:
- chief or leading member of the cabinet of the top-level government in a country having a parliamentary system of government; or
- the official, in countries with a semi-presidential system of government, appointed to manage the civil service and execute the directives of the President. President (1940-1945, 1951-1955)]] In parliamentary systems like the Westminster system, the prime minister is the head of the government while the position of head of state is largely ceremonial. In some monarchies the prime minister exercises powers (known as the Royal Prerogative) which are constitutionally vested in the Crown and can be exercised without the approval of parliament. As well as being Head of Government, a prime minister may have other roles or titles—the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, for example, is also First Lord of the Treasury. Prime ministers may take other ministerial posts—for example during the Second World War Winston Churchill was also Minister of Defence.

Prime ministers in republics and in monarchies

The post of prime minister is one which may be encountered both in constitutional monarchies (such as Belgium, Denmark, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, and the United Kingdom), and in republics in which the head of state is an elected (such as France) or unelected official (such as Germany) with varying degrees of real power. This contrasts with the presidential system, in which the President (or equivalent) is both the head of state and the head of the government. See also "First Minister" , "Premier", "Chief Minister" "Chancellor" and "Taoiseach": alternative titles usually equivalent in meaning to "prime minister." In some presidential or semi-presidential systems such as those of France, Russia, South Korea, or Taiwan the prime minister is an official generally appointed by the President but approved by the legislature and responsible for carrying out the directives of the President and managing the civil service. In these systems, it is possible for the president and the prime minister to be from different political parties if the legislature is controlled by a party different from that of the president. When it arises, such a state of affairs is usually referred to as (political) cohabitation.

Entry into office

In parliamentary systems a prime minister can enter into office by a number of means.
- by appointment by the head of state without the need for confirmation by parliament; Examples: New Zealand, the United Kingdom, where the monarch appoints a prime minister without the need for confirmation from parliament, which gets its first chance to indicate its view on the new government in the vote on the Speech from the Throne, in which the new government outlines its legislative programme. The method of prime ministerial appointment by the British sovereign is known as Kissing Hands. In Austria the chancellor takes office immediately after appointment and swear in by the Federal president.
- appointment by the head of state after parliament nominates a candidate; Example: The Republic of Ireland where the President of Ireland appoints the Taoiseach on the nomination of the Dáil Éireann.)
- appointment by the head of state after the majority parliamentary party nominates a candidate; Example: the Australian federal government, Canada, India, and New Zealand.
- the head of state nominates a candidate for prime minister who is then submitted to parliament for approval before appointment as prime minister; Example: Spain, where the King sends a nomination to parliament for approval. Also Germany where under the Basic Law (constitution) the Bundestag votes on a candidate nominated by the Federal President. In these cases, parliament can choose another candidate who then would be appointed by the head of state.)
- the head of state appoints a prime minister who has a set timescale within which s/he must gain a vote of confidence; (Example: Italy.)
- direct election by parliament (the premiers of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut);
- direct election by the public (Example: Israel, 1996-2001.); The prime minister is elected in a general election, with no regard to political affiliation.
- appointment by a state office holder other than the head of state or his/her representative; Example: Under the modern Instrument of Government 1974, which came into force in 1975, the power of commissioning someone to form a government was moved from the Monarch of Sweden to the Speaker of Parliament, who, once it has been approved, formally makes the appointment. Though most prime ministers are 'appointed', they are generally, if inaccurately, described as 'elected'.

Prime ministers and constitutions

Monarch of Sweden in the 1970s]] The position, power and status of prime ministers differ depending on the age of the constitution in individuals. Britain's constitution, being uncodified and largely unwritten, makes no mention of a prime minister. Though it had de facto existed for centuries, its first mention in official state documents did not occur until the first decade of the twentieth century. Australia's Constitution makes no mention of a prime minister of Australia. The office has a de facto existence at the head of the Executive Council. Ireland's constitution, Bunreacht na hÉireann (1937) provided for the office of taoiseach in detail, listing powers, functions and duties. Germany's Basic Law (1949) lists the powers, functions and duties of the federal Chancellor.

Exit from office

Contrary to popular and journalistic myth, most prime ministers in parliamentary systems are not appointed for a specific term of office and in effect may remain in power through a number of elections and parliaments. For example, Margaret Thatcher was only ever appointed prime minister on one occasion, in 1979. She remained continuously in power until 1990, though she used the assembly of each House of Commons after a general election to reshuffle her cabinet. Some states, however, do have a term of office of the prime minister linked to the period in office on the parliament. Hence the Irish Taoiseach is formally 'renominated' after every general election. (Some constitutional experts have questioned whether this process is actually in keeping with the provisions of the Irish constitution, which appear to suggest a taoiseach should remain in office, without the requirement of a renomination, unless s/he has clearly lost the general election.) The position of prime minister is normally chosen from the political party that commands majority of seats in the lower house of parliament. renomination from 1966-1977 and 1980-1984]] In parliamentary systems, governments are generally required to have the confidence of the lower house of parliament (though a small minority of parliaments, by giving a right to block Supply to upper houses, in effect make the cabinet responsible to both houses, though in reality upper houses, even when they have the power, rarely exercise it). Where they lose a vote of confidence, have a motion of no confidence passed against them, or where they lose Supply, most constitutional systems require either: a) a letter of resignation or b) a request of a parliamentary dissolution. The latter in effect allows the government to appeal the opposition of parliament to the electorate. However in many jurisdictions a head of state may refuse a parliamentary dissolution, requiring the resignation of the prime minister and his or her government. In most modern parliamentary systems, the prime minister is the person who decides when to request a parliamentary dissolution. Older constitutions often vest this power in the cabinet. (In Britain, for example, the tradition whereby it is the prime minister who requests a dissolution of parliament dates back to 1918. Prior to then, it was the entire government that made the request. Similarly, though the modern 1937 Irish constitution grants to the Taoiseach the right to make the request, the earlier 1922 Irish Free State Constitution vested the power in the Executive Council (the then name for the Irish cabinet).

Titles

A number of different terms are used to describe prime ministers. The German prime minister is actually titled Federal Chancellor while the Irish prime minister is called the Taoiseach. In many cases, though commonly used, "prime minister" is not the official title of the office-holder; the Spanish prime minister is the President of the Government (Presidente del Gobierno). Other common forms include President of the Council of Ministers (for example in Italy, Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri), President of the Executive Council, or Minister-President. In federations, the head of government of a state or province is most commonly known as the Premier or Chief Minister.

Style of a prime minister

The title prime minister is a job title that does not form part of the prime minister's name. It is therefore poor style to refer to “Prime Minister Blair”, just as it would be strange to call someone “Bus Driver Edwards”. The correct form is "Prime Minister Tony Blair" or "Tony Blair, Prime Minister". This mistake is particularly common in the United States, where a high office title is often adopted as if it were a military rank. The title of prime minister is lost when the officer holder ceases to be prime minister. This is not the case for some comparable positions in the United States, which can cause some confusion. When former Prime Minister of New Zealand Jim Bolger became the Ambassador to the United States, he was referred to as “Prime Minister Bolger”, which was both poor style and factually incorrect. Commonwealth Realm prime ministers are often Privy Counsellors entitled to the style the right honourable. In the New Zealand Parliament's debating chamber the Prime Minister is referred to as the Right Honourable the Prime Minister, rather than by name. In non-Commonwealth countries the prime minister may be entitled to the style of Excellency like a President.

Articles on prime ministers

Lists of prime ministers

The following table groups the list of past and present prime ministers and details information available in those lists.

External links

- [http://www.pm.gov.au/ website of the Prime Minister of Australia]
- [http://www.primeminister.gov.bb/ website of the Prime Minister of Barbados]
- [http://www.premier.fgov.be/ website of the Prime Minister of Belgium]
- [http://pm.gc.ca/ website of the Prime Minister of Canada]
- [http://www.premier-ministre.gouv.fr/en/ website of the Prime Minister of France]
- [http://www.primeminister.gr/gr/ website of the Prime Minister of the Hellenic Republic (Greece)]
- [http://www.kormany.hu/archivum/index.en.html website of the Prime Minister of Hungary]
- [http://eng.forsaetisraduneyti.is/ website of the Prime Minister of Iceland]
- [http://pmindia.nic.in website of the Prime Minister of India]
- [http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/index.asp website of the Taoiseach of Ireland]
- [http://www.pmo.gov.il/ website of the Prime Minister of Israel]
- [http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/index-e.html website of the Prime Minister of Japan]
- [http://www.opm.go.kr/warp/webapp/home/en_home website of the Prime Minister of South Korea]
- [http://www.pmo.gov.my website of the Prime Minister of Malaysia]
- [http://www.ministerpresident.nl/ website of the Prime Minister of The Netherlands]
- [http://www.primeminister.govt.nz/ website of the Prime Minister of New Zealand]
- [http://odin.dep.no/smk/engelsk/index-b-n-a.html website of the Prime Minister of Norway]
- [http://www.kprm.gov.pl/ website of the Prime Minister of Poland]
- [http://www.predsednik.gov.yu/ website of the Chairman of Serbia and Montenegro Council]
- [http://www.gov.si/pv/index.php?lng=eng website of the Prime Minister of Slovenia]
- [http://www.la-moncloa.es/webIngles/asp/inicio.asp website of the President of the Government of Spain]
- [http://www.pmoffice.go.th website of the Prime Minister of Thailand]
- [http://opm.gov.tt/ website of the Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago]
- [http://www.pm.gov.uk/output/Page1.asp home page of 10 Downing St, residence & office of the Prime Minister of the UK] Prime minister Category:Government occupations Prime minister ja:?? ko:?? zh-min-nan:Siú-siòng nb:Premierminister simple:Prime Minister th:????????????

Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury

The Most Honourable Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, KG, GCVO, PC (3 February 1830–22 August 1903), known as Lord Robert Cecil before 1865 and as Viscount Cranborne from 1865 until 1868, was a British statesman and Prime Minister.

Life

Lord Robert Cecil was the second son of the 2nd Marquess of Salisbury. After an unhappy childhood, in which he studied at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford, he went into politics, entering the House of Commons as a Conservative in 1853. In 1857, Cecil married Georgina Alderson, a woman of low social standing, in spite of his father's objections. The marriage proved a happy one, producing five sons and two daughters. In 1866 Cecil, now called Viscount Cranborne (due to the death of his older brother), entered the third government of Lord Derby as Secretary of State for India, but resigned the next year over the Reform Bill, which he opposed. In 1868, on the death of his father, he inherited the Marquessate of Salisbury, thereby becoming a member of the House of Lords. In 1900 Salisbury was worth £6.56 million, about £374 million in 2005. He returned to government in 1874, serving once again as India Secretary in the government of Benjamin Disraeli. Gradually, Salisbury developed a good relationship with Disraeli, whom he had previously disliked and distrusted, at least partially due to the latter's Jewish origins. In 1878, Salisbury succeeded Lord Derby (son of the former Prime Minister) as Foreign Secretary, in time to help lead Britain to "peace with honour" at the Congress of Berlin. For this he was rewarded with the Order of the Garter. Following Disraeli's death in 1881, the Conservatives entered a period of turmoil. Salisbury became the leader of the Conservative members of the House of Lords though the overall leadership of the party was not formally allocated and so he struggled with the Commons leader Sir Stafford Northcote, a struggle in which Salisbury eventually emerged as the leading figure to become Prime Minister of a minority administration from 1885 to 1886. Although he was unable to accomplish much in this administration, due to his tenuous command over the Commons, the split of the Liberals over Irish Home Rule in 1886 enabled him to return to power with a parliamentary majority, and, with a short break (1892–1895) to serve as Prime Minister throughout the period from 1886 to 1902. Salisbury's expertise was in foreign affairs, and uncharacteristically, for most of his time as Prime Minister he served not as First Lord of the Treasury, the traditional position held by the Prime Minister, but as Foreign Secretary. In that capacity, he skillfully managed Britain's foreign affairs, famously pursuing a policy of "Splendid Isolation", while at home he staunchly opposed Irish Home Rule. Among the important events of his premierships was the Partition of Africa, culminating in the Fashoda Crisis and the Boer War. On July 11, 1902, Salisbury resigned from office due to ill health and heart-broken over his wife's death. He was succeeded by his nephew, Arthur James Balfour. Salisbury was the last peer to serve as Prime Minister, with the brief exception of the 14th Earl of Home who renounced his peerage within a few days of being appointed. When Salisbury died his estate was probated at 310,336 pounds sterling.

Family

Salisbury was the third son of James Gascoyne-Cecil, 2nd Marquess of Salisbury, a minor Tory politician. He went against his father's wishes and married Georgina Alderson, the daughter of Sir Edward Alderson, a moderately notable jurist. Robert and Georgina had eight children, all but one of whom survived infancy.
- Lady Beatrix Cecil († 27 April 1950)
- Lady Gwendolen Cecil († 28 September 1945)
- Lady Fanny Cecil († 24 April 1867)
- James Gascoyne-Cecil, 4th Marquess of Salisbury (23 October 1861–4 April 1947)
- Rupert Ernest William Gascoyne-Cecil (9 March 1863–23 June 1936)
- Edgar Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood (14 September 1864–24 November 1958)
- Lord Edward Gascoyne-Cecil (12 July 1867–13 December 1918)
- Hugh Gascoyne-Cecil, 1st Baron Quickswood (14 October 1869–10 December 1956)

Lord Salisbury's First Government, July 1885–February 1886

1956
- Lord Salisbury – Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and Leader of the House of Lords
- Lord Iddesleigh – First Lord of the Treasury
- Lord Halsbury – Lord Chancellor
- Lord Cranbrook – Lord President of the Council
- Lord Harrowby – Lord Privy Seal
- Sir Richard Assheton Cross – Secretary of State for the Home Department
- Sir Frederick Arthur Stanley – Secretary of State for the Colonies
- William Henry Smith – Secretary of State for War
- Lord Randolph Churchill – Secretary of State for India
- Lord George Hamilton – First Lord of the Admiralty
- Sir Michael Hicks Beach – Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons
- The Duke of Richmond – President of the Board of Trade
- Lord John Manners – Postmaster-General
- Lord Carnarvon – Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland
- Lord Ashbourne – Lord Chancellor of Ireland
- Edward Stanhope – Vice President of the Council

Changes

- August 1885 – The Duke of Richmond becomes Secretary for Scotland. Edward Stanhope succeeds him at the Board of Trade. Stanhope's successor as Vice President of the Council is not in the Cabinet.
- January, 1886 – The Lord-Lieutenantship of Ireland is put into commission. William Henry Smith becomes Chief Secretary for Ireland. Lord Cranbrook succeeds him as Secretary for War, while remaining Lord President.

Lord Salisbury's Second Government, August 1886–August 1892

- Lord Salisbury – First Lord of the Treasury and Leader of the House of Lords
- Lord Halsbury – Lord Chancellor
- Lord Cranbrook – Lord President of the Council
- Lord Cadogan – Lord Privy Seal
- Henry Matthews – Secretary of State for the Home Department
- Lord Iddesleigh – Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
- Edward Stanhope – Secretary of State for the Colonies
- William Henry Smith – Secretary of State for War
- Lord Cross – Secretary of State for India
- Lord George Hamilton – First Lord of the Admiralty
- Lord Randolph Churchill – Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons
- Lord Stanley of Preston – President of the Board of Trade
- Lord John Manners – Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
- Sir Michael Hicks Beach – Chief Secretary for Ireland
- Arthur James Balfour – Secretary for Scotland

Cabinet after the reorganization of January, 1887

- Lord Salisbury – Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and Leader of the House of Lords
- William Henry Smith – First Lord of the Treasury and Leader of the House of Commons
- Lord Halsbury – Lord Chancellor
- Lord Cranbrook – Lord President of the Council
- Lord Cadogan – Lord Privy Seal
- Henry Matthews – Secretary of State for the Home Department
- Sir Henry Holland – Secretary of State for the Colonies
- Edward Stanhope – Secretary of State for War
- Lord Cross – Secretary of State for India
- Lord George Hamilton – First Lord of the Admiralty
- George Goschen – Chancellor of the Exchequer
- Lord Stanley of Preston – President of the Board of Trade
- Lord John Manners – Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
- Arthur James Balfour – Chief Secretary for Ireland
- Charles Thomson Ritchie – President of the Local Government Board
- Sir Michael Hicks Beach – Minister without Portfolio

Further Changes

- February 1888 – Sir Michael Hicks Beach succeeds Lord Stanley of Preston as President of the Board of Trade
- 1889 – Henry Chaplin enters the Cabinet as President of the Board of Agriculture.
- October, 1891 – Arthur James Balfour succeeds William Henry Smith (deceased) as First Lord of the Treasury and Leader of the House of Commons. William Lawies Jackson succeeds him as Irish Secretary.

Lord Salisbury's Third Government, June 1895–July 1902

- Lord Salisbury – Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and Leader of the House of Lords
- Arthur James Balfour – First Lord of the Treasury and Leader of the House of Commons
- Lord Halsbury – Lord Chancellor
- The Duke of Devonshire – Lord President of the Council
- Lord Cross – Lord Privy Seal
- Sir Matthew White Ridley – Secretary of State for the Home Department
- Joseph Chamberlain – Secretary of State for the Colonies
- Lord Lansdowne – Secretary of State for War
- Lord George Hamilton – Secretary of State for India
- George Joachim Goschen – First Lord of the Admiralty
- Sir Michael Hicks Beach – Chancellor of the Exchequer
- Charles Thomson Ritchie – President of the Board of Trade
- Henry Chaplin – President of the Local Government Board
- Lord James of Hereford – Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
- Aretas Akers-Douglas – First Commissioner of Works
- Lord Cadogan – Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland
- Lord Ashbourne – Lord Chancellor of Ireland
- Lord Balfour of Burleigh – Secretary for Scotland
- Walter Hume Long – President of the Board of Agriculture

Changes

November, 1900 – Complete reorganization of the ministry:
- Lord Salisbury – Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Lords
- Arthur James Balfour – First Lord of the Treasury and Leader of the House of Commons
- Lord Halsbury – Lord Chancellor
- The Duke of Devonshire – Lord President of the Council
- Charles Thomson Ritchie – Secretary of State for the Home Department
- Lord Lansdowne – Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
- Joseph Chamberlain – Secretary of State for the Colonies
- William St John Brodrick – Secretary of State for War
- Lord George Hamilton – Secretary of State for India
- Lord Selborne – First Lord of the Admiralty
- Sir Michael Hicks Beach – Chancellor of the Exchequer
- Gerald William Balfour – President of the Board of Trade
- Walter Hume Long – President of the Local Government Board
- Lord James of Hereford – Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
- Aretas Akers-Douglas – First Commissioner of Works
- Lord Cadogan – Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland
- Lord Ashbourne – Lord Chancellor of Ireland
- Lord Balfour of Burleigh – Secretary for Scotland
- Robert William Hanbury – President of the Board of Agriculture

Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington

The Most Noble Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS (c. 1 May 1769 – 14 September 1852) was an Anglo-Irish soldier and statesman, widely considered one of the leading military and political figures of the 19th century. Commissioned an Ensign in the British Army, he would rise to prominence in the Napoleonic Wars, eventually reaching the rank of Field Marshal. Wellington commanded the Allied forces during the Peninsular War, pushing the French Army out of Portugal and Spain and reaching southern France. Victorious and hailed as a hero in England, he was obliged to return to Europe to command the Anglo-Allied forces at Waterloo, after which Napoleon was permanently exiled at St. Helena. Wellington was victorious over Napoleon and the French at each of six major battles, confirming his place as one of history's greatest generals and strategists. Wellington is often compared to the 1st Duke of Marlborough, with whom he shared many characteristics, chiefly a transition to politics after a highly successful military career. He served as a Tory Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on two separate occasions, and was one of the leading figures in the House of Lords until his retirement in 1846.

Early life

Arthur Wesley (later changed to Wellesley when his elder brother changed his surname in 1798) is believed to have been born in either in Mornington House, his family's social season Dublin residence, or at his family's seat of Dangan Castle near Trim in County Meath, both in Ireland. He was the third son of Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington. His exact date of birth is a matter of some contention. All that exists is a church registry of the event marked a few days after it must have occurred. The most likely date is 1 May 1769, but any day for a few days before or after is possible. He was known originally as Arthur Wesley, which was legally changed to Arthur Wellesley in March 1798. He came from an established family of noblemen – his father was the 1st Earl of Mornington, his eldest brother, who would inherit his father's Earldom, would be created Marquess Wellesley, and two of his other brothers would be raised to the peerage as Baron Maryborough and Baron Cowley. Wesley was educated at Eton from 1781 to 1785, but a lack of success there, combined with a shortage of family funds, led to a move to Brussels in Belgium to receive further education. In 1787, his mother and brother Richard purchased for Wesley a commission as an Ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot; he attended the Military Academy of Angers in France, after having received earlier training in England. His first assignment was as aide-de-camp to two successive Lords Lieutenant of Ireland (1787–1793). He was promoted to Lieutenant in 1788; two years later, he was elected as an independent Member of Parliament for Trim in the Irish House of Commons (in 1790), a position he held until 1797. He rose rapidly in rank (largely through the purchase system, which at that time allowed, and, indeed, generally required, officers in the British Army to purchase their rank) becoming Lieutenant-Colonel in the 33rd Regiment of Foot in 1793. He participated in the unsuccessful campaign against the French in the Netherlands between 1794 and 1795, and was present at Boxtel. In 1796, after a promotion to Colonel, he accompanied his division to India. The next year, his elder brother, Richard Wellesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington, was appointed Governor-General of India, and when war broke out in 1799 against the Sultan of Mysore, Tipu Sultan, Arthur Wellesley commanded a division of his own. While serving in that capacity, he was appointed Governor of Seringapatam and Mysore, positions he held until 1805. He fought at Assaye, Argaum, and stormed the fortress at Gawilghur. Following the successful conclusion of that campaign, he was appointed to the supreme military and political command in the Deccan; while in that position he defeated the robber chieftain Dhundia Wagh (who had ironically escaped from prison in Seringapatam during the last battle of the Mysore war) and also the Marathas (in 1803). In 1804, he was created a Knight of the Bath, which would be the first of numerous honours throughout his life. When his brother's term as Governor-General of India ended in 1805, the brothers returned together to England, where they were forced to defend their imperialistic (and expensive) employment of the British forces in India. Wellesley was elected MP for Rye (in the British House of Commons) for six months in 1806; a year later, he was elected MP for Newport on the Isle of Wight, a constituency he would represent for two years. During this time, he was an established Tory, and in April 1807 (while representing St Michael), he was invested a Privy Counsellor. Additionally, he served as Chief Secretary for Ireland for some time. However, his political life would soon come to an abrupt end, and he would sail to Europe to participate in the Napoleonic Wars.

Napoleonic Wars

Napoleonic Wars It was in the following years that Wellesley undertook the events that made his place in history. Since 1789, France had been embroiled in the French Revolution, and after seizing the government in 1799, Napoleon had reached the heights of power in Europe. The British government was casting about for ways to end Napoleon's threat; and Wellesley helped to supply them. First came junior command in an expedition to Denmark in 1807, which soon led to Wellesley's promotion to Lieutenant-General and a transfer to the theatre of the Peninsular War. Although that war was not going particularly well, it was the one place where the Portuguese and the British had managed to put up a fight on the European mainland against France and her allies. (The disastrous Walcheren expedition was typical of the misfired British expeditions of the time.) Wellesley had submitted a memorandum to Lord Castlereagh on the defense of Portugal and Castlereagh appointed him head of an expeditionary force. Wellesley defeated the French at the Battle of Roliça and the Battle of Vimeiro in 1808. The resulting Convention of Cintra, which stipulated that the British army would transport the French out of Lisbon with all their loot, was controversial, and Wellesley was briefly recalled to Britain. In the meantime, however, Napoleon himself had come to Spain with his veteran troops, and when the Commander-in-Chief, Sir John Moore, died during the Battle of Corunna, Wellesley was appointed Commander-in-Chief of all British forces in Portugal. Returning to Iberia in April 1809, he defeated one of the armies of King Joseph of Spain (Napoleon's eldest brother) at the Battle of Talavera in 1809. For this, he was raised to the Peerage as Viscount Wellington, of Talavera and of Wellington in the County of Somerset. When the French invaded Portugal again in 1810, he slowed them down at the Busaco, then blocked them from taking the Lisbon peninsula by his magnificently constructed earthwork Lines of Torres Vedras coupled with the waterborne protection of the British Royal Navy (the bloodless Battle of Lisbon). The baffled and starving French invasion forces retreated after six months. He proceeded to drive them out of Portugal entirely in 1811, fighting at Fuentes de Oñoro and Albuera. In May 1811, he was promoted to General for his services in Portugal. Driving into Spain, he defeated the French again at Salamanca, then took Madrid in 1812. Around this time, he was created Earl of Wellington. A French counter-attack that year put British forces in a precarious position, but Lord Wellington was given command of all Allied armies in Spain and created Marquess of Wellington on 3 October. Taking advantage of the withdrawal of many French troops to Napoleon's doomed invasion of Russia, Wellington led a new offensive in 1813, culminating in the Battle of Vitoria, which pushed the enemy back into France and for which he was Promoted to Field Marshal. He invaded France, and finally defeated the French forces at Toulouse; after this battle, Napoleon was exiled to Elba in 1814. Hailed as the conquering hero, Wellington was created Duke of Wellington, a title still held by his descendants. He was soon appointed Ambassador to France, then took Lord Castlereagh's place as First Plenipotentiary to the Congress of Vienna, where he strongly advocated allowing France to keep its place in the European balance of power. On 2 January 1815, the title of his Knighthood of the Bath was converted to Knight Grand Cross upon the expansion of that order. On 26 February 1815, Napoleon left his exile on Elba and returned to France. Regaining control of the country by May, he then faced a reformation of the alliance against him. Wellington left Vienna to command the Anglo-Allied forces during the Waterloo Campaign. He ended up in Belgium, along with Prussian forces under Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, and the Anglo-Allied forces fought the French in the inconclusive Battle of Quatre Bras. Two days later, on 18 June, Wellington and von Blücher finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. The French Emperor abdicated once again on 22 June, and was spirited away by the British to distant St Helena.

Wellington as soldier

Despite oft cited similarities between Napoleon Bonaparte and Wellington, the strategies and tactics employed by both were diametically opposed. Perhaps the main reason that Napoleon stands in many history texts above Wellington is that Napoleon offered radical changes in warfare in every respect, whereas Wellington's contribution to warfare lies more in the resurrection of the old. Napoleonic tactics were typified by massive conscript armies who advanced in tight columns to rout opposing forces. This was soon adopted by nearly every major participant in the war, with the chief exception of Britain and Wellington's Peninsular army. In almost every engagement, Wellington depended upon British regulars who stood in line and fired three to four rounds per minute. Wellington relied on defensive firepower as opposed to mass attacks in his engagements, and is thus often compared tactically to Frederick the Great. However, as linear formations are restricted in mobility, they are at a disadvantage on the offensive. This has led to numerous accusations of Wellington being "a defensive general." This is partially justified, with the exception of Salamanca, all of his major battles (including Waterloo) were won by defensive tactics. Strategically, Wellington also appears somewhat anachronistic, with the Peninsular War revolving partly upon the possession and besieging of fortified strongholds. Conventional military wisdom of the era, especially under Napoleon, dictated that the opposing field army was to be eliminated at any price necessary. In pursuit of this aim, desperate measures would be taken, such as winter battles, forced marches, and privation allievated only by foraging. Wellington's campaign displayed carefully planned offensives, tempered by subsequent consolidation of gains. Hence, after the Battle of Talavera, Wellington received strong critcism within his army for not immediately marching on Madrid. In other strategic areas however, Wellington seemed to forecast the tide of the future. The construction of the fortifications near Torres Vedras, and the subsequent attritional campaign which ensued, seems to typify the manner that warfare would evolve within the following century. Wellington should be considered a model for multi-national leadership. He efficiently coordinated the efforts of Portugese, Spanish, and a multitude of other foreign units, as well as negotiating with a home government not always empathetic to military concerns. It is a testament to Wellington's ability that he successfully intergrated and commanded British, Irish, Spanish, Portugese, Hanoverian, Prussian, Swiss, Indian, Dutch, and Belgian troops; a retinue only Napoleon himself could probably match. In command of these forces, he was almost always outnumbered, and succeeded by the merits of his attention to detail, micro management, and tactical foresight.

Later life

St Helena Politics beckoned once again in 1819, when Wellington was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance in the Tory government of Lord Liverpool. In 1827, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army, a position he would hold for the remainder of his life, except during his premiership. Along with Robert Peel, Wellington became one of the rising stars of the Tory party, and by 1828, had become Prime Minister. As Prime Minister, Wellington was the picture of the arch-conservative, though oddly enough the highlight of his term was Catholic Emancipation, the granting of almost full civil rights to Catholics in the United Kingdom. The change was forced by the landslide by-election win of Daniel O'Connell, a Catholic proponent of emancipation, who was elected despite not being legally allowed to sit in Parliament. Lord Winchilsea accused the Duke of having "treacherously plotted the destruction of the Protestant constitution". Wellington responded by immediately challenging Winchilsea to a duel. The duel is also one of the reasons for the founding of King's College London. On 21 March 1829, Wellington and Winchilsea met on Battersea fields. When it came time to fire, the Duke deliberately aimed wide and Winchilsea fired into the air. He subsequently wrote Wellington a grovelling apology. In the House of Lords, facing stiff opposition, Wellington spoke for Catholic emancipation, giving one of the best speeches of his career [http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/town/terrace/adw03/polspeech/catholic.htm]. The Catholic Emancipation Act was passed with a majority of 105. Wellington's government fell in 1830. In the summer and autumn of that year, a wave of riots swept the country. The Whigs had been out of power for all but a few years since the 1770s, and saw political reform in response to the unrest as the key to their return. Wellington stuck to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of the franchise, and as a result lost a vote of no confidence on 15 November 1830. He was replaced as Prime Minister by Lord Grey. The Whigs introduced the first Reform Act, but Wellington and the Tories worked to prevent its passage. The bill passed in the House of Commons, but was defeated in the House of Lords. An election followed in direct response, and the Whigs were returned with an even larger majority. A second Reform Act was introduced, and defeated in the same way, and another wave of near insurrection swept the country. During this time, Wellington was greeted by a hostile reaction from the crowds at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and eventually the bill was passed after the Whigs threatened to have the House of Lords packed with their own followers if it were not. Though passed, Wellington was never reconciled to the change; when Parliament first met after the first election under the widened franchise, Wellington is reported to have said "I never saw so many shocking bad hats in my life". During this time, Wellington was gradually superseded as leader of the Tories by Robert Peel; when the Tories were brought back to power in 1834, Wellington declined to become Prime Minister, and Peel was selected instead. Unfortunately Peel was in Italy, and for three weeks in November and December 1834, Wellington acted as a caretaker, taking the responsibilities of Prime Minister and most of the other ministries. In Peel's first Cabinet (1834–1835), Wellington became Foreign Secretary, while in the second (1841–1846) he was a Minister without Portfolio and Leader of the House of Lords. Wellington retired from political life in 1846, although he remained Commander-in-Chief of the Forces, and returned briefly to the spotlight in 1848 when he helped organize a military force to protect London during that year of European revolution. He died in 1852, and was buried in a sarcophagus of luxulyanite in St Paul's Cathedral. In 1838 a proposal to build a statue of Wellington resulted in the building of a giant statue of him on his horse Copenhagen, placed above the Arch at Constitution Hill in London directly outside Apsley House, his former London home, in 1846. The enormous scale of the 40 ton, 30 feet high monument resulted in its removal in 1883 and the following year it was transported to Aldershot where it still stands near the Royal Garrison Church.

Titles & Honours

Royal Garrison Church

Peerage of the United Kingdom

- Baron Douro, of Wellington in the County of Somerset (4 September 1809)
- Viscount Wellington, of Talavera and of Wellington in the County of Somerset (4 September 1809)
- Earl of Wellington, in the County of Somerset (28 February 1812)
- Marquess of Wellington, in the County of Somerset (3 October 1812)
- Marquess Douro (11 May 1814)
- Duke of Wellington, in the County of Somerset (11 May 1814)

British & Irish Honours

- Knight of the Bath (1804)
- Privy Councillor of Great Britain (8 April 1807)
- Privy Councillor of Ireland (28 April 1807)
- Knight of the Garter (1813)
- Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (1815)
- Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (1829)
- Peninsular Cross medal with nine bars for all campaigns--the only one so issued. Displayed at Apsley House along with a Waterloo Medal.
- Fellow of the Royal Society (1847)

International Honours & Titles

- Conde de Vimeiro (18 October 1811, Portugal)
- Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo (January 1812, Spain)
- Grandee of the First Class (January 1812, Spain)
- Marquês de Torres Vedras (August 1812, Portugal)
- Duque de Vittoria (18 December 1812, Portugal)
- Knight of the Golden Fleece (1812, Spain)
- Prins van Waterloo (18 July 1815, The Netherlands)
- Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Hanover (1816, Hanover)
- Field Marshal batons from 12 countries. These can be seen at Apsley House. The Duke of Wellington stood as godfather to Queen Victoria's seventh child, Prince Arthur, in 1850. The Duke of Wellington and his godson shared the same birthdate, and as a toddler, young Arthur was encouraged to remind people that the Duke of Wellington was his godfather.

Nicknames

Apart from giving his name to "Wellington boots", the Duke of Wellington also had several nicknames.
- The "Iron Duke", after an incident in 1830 in which he installed metal shutters to prevent rioters breaking windows at Apsley House
- Officers under his command called him "The Beau", thanks to him being a fine dresser or "The Peer" after he was created a Viscount.
- Regular soldiers under his command called him "Old Nosey" because of his long nose.
- Spanish and Portuguese troops called him "the Eagle" and "Douro" respectively. Aside from nicknames, another interesting fact about Wellington is that he shaved twice a day due to rapid growth of facial hair. He was also insistent that he was not interrupted during shaving. This little tale is seen in Redcoats by Richard Holmes.

The Duke of Wellington's Government, January 1828–November 1830

- The Duke of Wellington—First Lord of the Treasury and Leader of the House of Lords
- Lord Lyndhurst—Lord Chancellor
- Lord Bathurst—Lord President of the Council
- Lord Ellenborough—Lord Privy Seal
- Robert Peel—Secretary of State for the Home Department and Leader of the House of Commons
- Lord Dudley—Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
- William Huskisson—Secretary of State for War and the Colonies
- Henry Goulburn—Chancellor of the Exchequer
- Charles Grant—President of the Board of Trade and Treasurer of the Navy
- Lord Melville—President of the Board of Control
- John Charles Herries—Master of the Mint
- Lord Aberdeen—Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
- Lord Palmerston—Secretary at War Changes
- May, 1828—Sir George Murray became Colonial Secretary on the death of Huskisson.
- June, 1828—Lord Aberdeen succeeded Lord Dudley as Foreign Secretary. Aberdeen's successor at the Duchy of Lancaster was not in the Cabinet. William Vesey-FitzGerald succeeded Grant as President of the Board of Trade and Treasurer of the Navy. Lord Palmerston left the Cabinet. His successor as Secretary at War was not in the Cabinet.
- September, 1828—Lord Melville becomes First Lord of the Admiralty. He was succeeded as President of the Board of Control by Lord Ellenborough, who remained also Lord Privy Seal
- June, 1829—Lord Rosslyn succeeded Lord Ellenborough as Lord Privy Seal. Ellenborough remained at the Board of Control.

The Duke of Wellington's Caretaker Government November 1834–December 1834

- The Duke of Wellington—First Lord of the Treasury, Secretary of State for the Home Department, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Secretary of State for War and the Colonies and Leader of the House of Lords
- Lord Lyndhurst—Lord Chancellor
- Lord Denham—Chancellor of the Exchequer Other offices were in commission.

1846

1846 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 5 - The United States House of Representatives votes to stop sharing the Oregon Territory with the United Kingdom
- February 5 - The Oregon Spectator becomes the first newspaper on the Pacific coast of the United States.
- February 10 - Many Mormons begin their migration west from Nauvoo, Illinois to Great Salt Lake led by Brigham Young
- February 19 - In Austin, Texas the newly-formed Texas state government is officially installed.
- March 10 - Prince Osahito, fourth son of deceased Emperor Ninko of Japan, becomes Emperor Komei of Japan.
- April 25 - Mexican-American War: Open conflict begins over border disputes of Texas' boundaries.
- April 27 - The first arrival of a train to Celje.
- May 8 - Mexican-American War: The Battle of Palo Alto - Zachary Taylor defeats a Mexican force north of the Rio Grande at Palo Alto, Texas in the first major battle of the war.
- May 13 - Mexican-American War: The United States declares war on Mexico.
- 16 May - Under the leadership of British Prime Minister Robert Peel, the British Parliament repeals the Corn Laws, replacing the old Colonial mercantile trade system with Free Trade.
- May 17 - The Saxophone is patented by Adolphe Sax
- June 10 - Mexican-American War: The California Republic declares independence from Mexico.
- June 10 - Grinnell College: The first American college or university to the West of the Mississippi River is founded.
- June 14 - Bear Flag Revolt begins - American settlers in Sonoma, California start a rebellion against Mexico and proclaim the California Republic.
- June 15 - The Oregon Treaty establishes the 49th parallel as the border between the United States and Canada, from the Rocky Mountains to the Strait of Juan de Fuca.[http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/two/oretreat.htm]
- June 21 - Pope Pius IX ascends to the Holy See.
- July 7 - Acting on instructions from Washington, DC, Commodore John Drake Sloat orders his troops to occupy Monterey and Yerba Buena thus beginning the United States annexation of California.
- August 14 - The Cape Girardeau meteorite, a 2.3 kg chondrite type meteorite struck earth 7.5 miles (12 km) south of the town of Cape Girardeau in Cape Girardeau County, Missouri.
- September 23 – Neptune discovered by German astronomers Johann Gottfried Galle and Heinrich Louis d'Arrest, although the planet did not get its current name for many years.
- October 16 - Boston dentist William T.G. Morton uses ether anesthesia for the first time when he assist in removal of a tumor in the Massachusetts General Hospital
- December 28: Iowa is admitted as the 29th U.S. state.
- The portion of the District of Columbia that was ceded by Virginia in 1790 is re-ceded to Virginia.
- Potato crop fails in Ireland
- Electric Telegraph Company founded in Britain
- Liberia declares independence as a republic
- Elias Howe patents the sewing machine
- Railway Mania in Britain reaches its zenith
- Rotary printing press invented making rapid printing of newspapers possible

Ongoing events

- Mexican-American War (1846-1848)
- Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)

Births

- January 5 - Rudolf Christoph Eucken, German writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1926)
- February 2 - Francis Marion Smith, American borax magnate (d. 1931)
- February 9 - Wilhelm Maybach, German automobile designer (d. 1929)
- February 18 - Wilson Barrett, English actor (d. 1904)
- February 26 - Buffalo Bill, American hunter and entertainer (d. 1917)
- April 4 - Comte de Lautreamont, French writer (d. 1870)
- May 5 - Henryk Sienkiewicz, Polish author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1916)
- June 27 - Charles Stewart Parnell, Irish political leader (d. 1891)
- July 17 - Tokugawa Iemochi, Japanese shogun (d. 1866)
- November 25 - Carrie Nation, American temperance advocate (d. 1911)

Deaths

- February 21 - Emperor Ninko of Japan (b. 1800)
- March 17 - Friedrich Bessel, German mathematician and astronomer (b. 1784
- June 1 - Pope Gregory XVI (b. 1765)
- June 8 - Rodolphe Töpffer, Swiss author, painter, and caricature artist (b. 1799)
- November 6 - Karol Marcinkowski, Polish physician and social activist (b. 1800) Category:1846 ko:1846년 th:พ.ศ. 2389

1834

1834 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 1 - Abolition of customs charges at borders within Germany.
- January 3 - The government of Mexico imprisons Stephen F. Austin in Mexico City
- January 13 - John Mason Cook, whom JMC Air is named after was born.
- January 25 - Hillsborough County was created by Florida's territorial legislature.
- March 6 - York, Upper Canada is incorporated as Toronto.
- March 18 - The Tolpuddle Martyrs, six Dorset farm labourers, are sentenced to be transported to a penal colony for forming a trade union
- March 28 - The United States Senate censures President Andrew Jackson for his actions in defunding the Second Bank of the United States
- June 7 - Greek independence general Theodoros Kolokotronis is sentenced to death for treason for resisting the rule of Otto of Greece (he is released next year)
- June 14 - Isaac Fischer, Jr. patents sandpaper
- July 16 - William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne succeeds Earl Grey as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
- July 24 - End of the Liberal Wars in Portugal
- August 1 - Slavery abolished in the British Empire
- August 14 - Poor Law Amendment Act states that no able-bodied British man can receive assistance unless he enters a workhouse
- August 15 - South Australia Act allows for the creation of a colony there
- October 16 - Much of the Palace of Westminster is destroyed by fire
- November 11 - The rare 1804 silver dollar coin is struck by the United States Mint
- November 24 - George Sand begins her journal to Alfred de Musset.
- December 10 - Sir Robert Peel succeeds Lord Melbourne as Prime Minister of the U.K.
- Abolition of slavery comes into effect in British Empire
- Failed pro-republic uprising in Piedmont – one of the activists is Giuseppe Garibaldi
- New Poor Law in England
- Last hanging in chains upon a gibbet in England - James Cook for murder
- Spanish Inquisition, which began in the 13th century, was suppressed.
- British East India Company monopoly on China trade ended
- Sixth Kaffir War; severe clashes between white settlers and Bantu peoples in Cape Colony. Dutch speaking settlers colonize area north of Orange River
- The Hansom cab is patented
- Louis Braille perfects his Braille system
- The Exchequer was abolished as a revenue collecting department of the British government.
- Worcester Academy is founded as the Worcester County Manual Labor High School.
- Indian Trade and Intercourse Act renewed

Births

- January 7 - Johann Philipp Reis, German physicist and inventor (d. 1874)
- February 8 - Dmitri Mendeleev, Russian chemist (d. 1907)
- February 9 - Felix Dahn, German author (d. 1912)
- February 16 - Ernst Haeckel, German zoologist and philosopher (d. 1919)
- March 16 - James Hector, Scottish geologist (d. 1907)
- March 17 - Gottlieb Daimler, German engineer and inventor (d. 1900)
- March 20 - Charles W. Eliot, American President of Harvard University (d. 1926)
- March 23 - Julius Reubke, German composer (d. 1858).
- March 24 - William Morris, English poet and artist (d. 1896)
- March 24 - John Wesley Powell, American explorer (d. 1902)
- April 1 - Big Jim Fisk, American entrepreneur (d. 1872)
- April 2 - Frédéric Bartholdi, French sculptor (d. 1904)
- May 23 - Carl Heinrich Bloch, Danish sculptor (d. 1890)
- June 19 - Charles Spurgeon, English Baptist preacher (d. 1892)
- July 10 - James McNeill Whistler, American painter and etcher (d. 1903)
- July 19 - Edgar Degas, French painter (d. 1917)
- August 4 - John Venn, British mathematician (d. 1923)
- August 22 - Samuel Pierpont Langley, American astronomer, physicist, and aeronautics pioneer (d. 1906)
- August 31 - Amilcare Ponchielli, Italian composer (d. 1886)
- October 8 - Walter Kittredge, American composer (d. 1905)

Deaths

- January 17 - Giovanni Aldini, Italian physicist (b. 1762)
- February 2 - Lorenzo Dow, American minister (b. 1777)
- February 12 - Friedrich Schleiermacher, German theologian (b. 1768)
- March 2 - José Cecilo del Valle, first President of Central America (b. 1780)
- April 10 - John 'Merino' MacArthur, Australian farmer (b. 1767)
- April 11 - John 'Mad Jack' Fuller, English philanthropist and patron of the arts and sciences (b. 1757)
- May 20 - Marquis de la Fayette, French nobleman and soldier (b. 1757)
- July 12 - David Douglas, Scottish botanist (b. 1799)
- July 14 - Edmond Charles Genêt, French ambassador to the United States during the French Revolution (b. 1763)
- July 25 - Samuel Taylor Coleridge, English writer (b. 1772)
- August 7 - Joseph Marie Jacquard, French inventor (b. 1752)
- August 17 - Husein Gradaščević, Bosniak rebel leader (b. 1802)
- September 2 - Thomas Telford, Scottish engineer (b. 1757)
- September 9 - James Weddell, Antarctic explorer (b. 1787)
- September 16 - William Blackwood, English writer (b. 1776)
- September 24 - Pedro I of Brazil (b. 1798)
- October 8 - François-Adrien Boieldieu, French composer (b. 1775)
- October 11 - William John Napier, 9th Lord Napier, British Navy officer, politician and diplomat (b. 1786)
- December 23 - Thomas Malthus, English economist and political philosopher (b. 1766)
- December 27 - Charles Lamb, English essayist (b. 1775) Category:1834 ko:1834년 ms:1834 simple:1834 th:พ.ศ. 2377

1851

1851 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 23 - The flip of a coin determines whether a new city in Oregon is named after Boston, Massachusetts, or Portland, Maine, with Portland winning.
- March 1 - Victor Hugo gives speech at the French national assembly and uses the phrase United States of Europe several times
- March 27 - First reported case of white men seeing Yosemite Valley.
- March 30 - A population census was taken of all people living in the United Kingdom.
- May 1 - The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations in the Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, London is opened by Queen Victoria. It runs until October 18.
- May 15 - Rama IV is crowed King of Thailand.
- July - The immortal game, a famous chess game, is played.
- July 1 - Colony of Victoria separates from New South Wales.
- July 1 - Serial poisoner Helene Jegado is arrested in Rennes, France
- July 29 - Annibale de Gasparis, in Naples, Italy discovers asteroid 15 Eunomia.
- August 5 - Mount Pelee erupts and kills 30 people.
- August 22 - The yacht America wins the first America's Cup race.
- September 15 - Saint Joseph's University is founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
- September 18 - The New York Times is founded.
- October - Reuters news service founded.
- October 18 - The Great Exhibition in London is closed.
- October 24 - Ariel and Umbriel, moons of Uranus, discovered by William Lassell.
- November 13 - The Denny Party lands at Alki Point, the first settlers of what will become Seattle, Washington.
- November 14 - Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick is published in the U.S. by Harper & Brothers, New York - after it was first published on October 18, by Richard Bentley, London.
- December 2 - Louis Napoleon, president of France, dissolves French National Assembly and declares a new constitution to extend his term. Later he declares himself as an emperor Napoleon III. End of the Second Republic.
- December 6 - Trial of Helene Jegado begins; she is eventually sentenced to death and executed in a guillotine.
- December 9 - The first YMCA in North America is established in Montreal, Quebec.
- December 24 - The Library of Congress burns.
- December 26-27 - Royal Navy warship bombards Lagos island; Oba Kosoko is wounded and flees to Epe.
- December 29 - The first YMCA opens, in Boston, Massachusetts.

Undated

- Dictator Rosas overthrown in Brazil. New government recognizes independent Paraguay. New Blanco government in Uruguay
- Florida State University is founded.
- Gold discovered in Australia.
- St. Paul's College, Hong Kong is founded.

Births

- January 17 - A. B. Frost, American illustrator (d. 1928)
- January 19 - Jacobus Kapteyn, Dutch astronomer (d. 1922)
- February 8 - Kate Chopin, American writer (d. 1904)
- March 19 - William Henry Stark, Business Leader (d. 1936)
- March 27 - Vincent d'Indy, French composer and teacher (d. 1931)
- March 28 - Bernardino Machado, Portuguese President (d. 1944)
- April 21 - Charles Barrois, French geologist (d. 1939)
- May 6 - Aristide Bruant, French cabaret singer and comedian (d. 1925)
- May 20 - Emil Berliner, telephone and recording pioneer (d. 1929)
- May 21 - Léon Bourgeois, French statesman, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1925)
- August 14 - Doc Holliday, American gambler and gunfighter (d. 1887)
- September 7 - David King Udall, American politician (d. 1938)
- October 2 - Ferdinand Foch, French commander of allied forces in World War I (d. 1929)
- Robert Abbe, American surgeon (d. 1928)
- Tom Morris, Jr., Scottish golfer (d. 1875)

Deaths

- January 10 - Karl Freiherr von Müffling, Prussian field marshal (b. 1775)
- January 27 - John James Audubon, French-American naturalist and illustrator (b. 1785)
- January 31 - David Spangler Kaufman, Congressman from Texas (b. 1813)
- February 1 - Mary Shelley, English author (b. 1797)
- February 18 - Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi, German mathematician (b. 1804)
- March 9 - Hans Christian Ørsted, Danish scientist (b. 1777)
- September 10 - Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, American educator (b. 1787)
- September 11 - Sylvester Graham, American nutritionist and inventor (b. 1794)
- September 14 - James Fenimore Cooper, American writer (b. 1789)
- October 4 - Manuel de Godoy, Spanish statesman (b. 1767)
- November 26 - Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult, French marshal (b. 1769)
- December 19 - Joseph Mallord William Turner, English artist (b. 1775) ko:1851년 ms:1851 simple:1851 th:พ.ศ. 2394

1868

1868 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 3 - Meiji Emperor declares "Meiji Restoration", his own restoration to full power, against the supporters of the Tokugawa Shogunate.
- January 6 - Asa Mercer and number of new "Mercer Girls" sail from Massachusetts for West Coast - they arrive in Seattle in May 23
- January 10 - Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu declares emperor's declaration "illegal" and attacks Kyoto. Pro-Emperor forces drive his troops away. Shogun surrenders in May.
- February 13 - The War Office sanctions the formation of what will become the Army Post Office Corps
- February 16 - In New York City the Jolly Corks organization is renamed the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks (BPOE).
- February 24 - The first parade to have floats occurs at Mardi Gras in New Orleans, Louisiana.
- February 24 - After Andrew Johnson tried to dismiss United States Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, he becomes the first President of the United States to be impeached by the United States House of Representatives. Johnson would later be acquitted by the United States Senate.
- March 5 - A court of impeachment is organized in the United States Senate to hear charges against President Andrew Johnson.
- March 23 - The University of California is founded in Oakland, California when the Organic Act is signed into California law.
- April 1 - Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute is established in Hampton, Virginia
- March 24 - Metropolitan Life Insurance Company is formed.
- May 16 - President Andrew Johnson is acquitted during his impeachment trial, by one vote in the United States Senate.
- May 30 - Memorial Day is observed in the United States for the first time (it was proclaimed on May 5 by General John Logan).
- May 31 - Thomas Spence declares himself president of the Republic of Manitoba. He soon alienates the locals
- July 5 - Preacher William Booth establishes the Christian Mission, predecessor of the Salvation Army, in the East End of London
- July 25 - Wyoming becomes a United States territory.
- July 28 - The 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution is adopted guaranteeing African Americans full citizenship and all persons in the United States due process of law.
- late September - Queen Isabella II of Spain effectively deposed and goes into exile; she will formally abdicate June 25, 1870.
- September 23 - Rebels in the town of Lares declare Puerto Rico independent. Local militia defeats them a week later.
- October 28 - Thomas Edison applied for his first patent, the electric vote recorder.
- November - Ulysses S. Grant defeats Horatio Seymour in the U.S. presidential election.
- November 2 - New Zealand officially adopts nationally observed standard time, and was perhaps the first country to do so.
- December 25 - US President Andrew Johnson grants unconditional pardon to all Civil War rebels.
- November 27 - Indian Wars: Battle of Washita River - In the early morning, United States Army Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer leads an attack on a band of peaceful Cheyenne living on reservation land with Chief Black Kettle, killing 103 Cheyenne (later regarded as the first substantial US victory in the war).
- Thomas Henry Huxley discovers what he thinks is a primordial matter and names it bathybius haecklii (he admits his mistake in 1871)
- German ophthalmologist August Rothmund defines Rothmund-Thompson's syndrome.
- First edition of the World Almanac published.
- Académie Julian - a major art school in Paris, France that admitted women.

Births

- January 9 - S.P.L. Sørensen, Danish chemist (d. 1939)
- January 31 - Theodore William Richards, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1928)
- February 10 - William Allen White, American journalist (d. 1944)
- February 23 - W.E.B. DuBois, American civil rights leader (d. 1963)
- March 22 - Robert Millikan, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1953)
- March 25 - William Lockwood, English cricketer (d. 1932)
- March 28 - Maxim Gorky, Russian author (d. 1936)
- April 10 - George Arliss, English actor (d. 1946)
- May 6 - Nicholas II of Russia (d. 1918)
- May 6 - Gaston Leroux, French writer (d. 1927)
- May 29 - Abdul Mejid II, last Caliph of the Ottoman Empire (d. 1944)
- June 7 - Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Scottish architect (d. 1928)
- June 14 - Karl Landsteiner, Austrian biologist and physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1943)
- June 18 - Georges Lacombe, French artist (d. 1916)
- July 12 - Stefan George, German poet (d. 1933)
- July 14 - Gertrude Bell, English archaeologist, writer, spy, and administrator (d. 1926)
- August 26 - Charles Stewart, Premier of Alberta (d. 1946)
- September 1 - Henri Bourassa, Canadian politician and publisher (d. 1952).
- October 18 - Ernst Didring, Swedish writer (d. 1931)
- November 8 - Felix Hausdorff, German mathematician (d. 1942)
- November 9 - Marie Dressler, Canadian actress (d. 1934)
- November 24 - Scott Joplin, American musician and composer (d. 1917)
- December 9 - Fritz Haber, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1934)

Deaths

- February 11 - Léon Foucault, French astronomer (b. 1819)
- February 29 - King Ludwig I of Bavaria (b. 1786)
- March 4 - Jesse Chisholm, American pioneer (b. 1805)
- March 28 - James Thomas Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan, British military leader (b. 1797)
- April - Isami Kondo, Japanese fighter (b. 1834)
- April 3 - Franz Berwald, Swedish composer (b. 1796)
- April 7 - Thomas D'Arcy McGee, Irish-Canadian journalist, politician and Canadian father of confederation (assassinated) (b. 1825)
- May 7 - Henry Peter Brougham, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1778)
- May 23 - Kit Carson, American trapper, scout, and Indian agent (b. 1809)
- June 1 - James Buchanan, 15th President of the United States (b. 1791)
- June 22 - Heber C. Kimball, Mormon church leader (b. 1801)
- September 26 - August Ferdinand Möbius, German mathematician and astronomer (b. 1790)
- October 17 - Laura Secord, Canadian patriot (b. 1775)
- November 13 - Gioacchino Rossini, Italian composer (b. 1792)
- November 15 - James Mayer Rothschild, German-born banker (b. 1792)
- December 6 - August Schleicher, German linguist (b. 1821)
- Charles Thomas Longley, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1794)
- August Ferdinand Möbius, German mathematician and theoretical astronomer (b. 1790) Category:1868 ko:1868년 ms:1868 simple:1868 th:พ.ศ. 2411

1868

1868 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar).

Events

Births

Deaths

1869

1869 is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar).

Events

- March 1 - North German Confederation issues 10gr and 30gr value stamps, printed on goldbeater's skin
- May 4 - Naval Battle of Hakodate in Japan.
- May 6 - Purdue University founded in West Lafayette, Indiana.
- May 10 - Transcontinental Railroad completed at Promontory, Utah.
- May 15 - Woman's suffrage: In New York, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton form the National Woman's Suffrage Association.
- May 26 - Last public hanging in Britain - Fenian bomber Michael Barrett
- May 29 - British parliament passes the Capital Punishment within Prisons Bill ending public hanging
- August 4/12 - Emperor Norton I of the United States abolished both the Democratic and Republican parties.
- August 9 - August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht founded the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany (SDAP)
- August 20 - Abergele Train Disaster - Irish Mail passenger train collides with cargo trucks loaded with paraffin - 33 dead; First major train disaster in Britain
- August 31 - Mary Ward is killed in a car accident, possibly the first person ever to suffer this fate
- September 11 - Work completed on the Wallace Monument
- October 16 - England's first residential college for women, Girton College, is founded.
- November 4 - The first issue of scientific journal Nature is published.
- November 6 - The first intercollegiate American football game is played. Rutgers defeats Princeton, 6 to 4.
- November 17 - In Egypt, the Suez Canal, linking the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea, is inaugurated in an elaborate ceremony.
- November 23 - In Dumbarton, Scotland the clipper ship Cutty Sark is launched (it was one of the last clipper ships to be built, and the only one surviving to the present day).
- December 10 - First American chapter of Kappa Sigma founded at the University of Virginia.
- December 31 - Triple Alliance forces take Asuncion
- Basutoland becomes British protectorate
- British parliament ends transportation to Australia as punishment
- Venancio Flores murdered in Montevideo
- Ulysses S. Grant succeeds Andrew Johnson as President of the United States of America.
- Fire burns down about 75% of Hancock, Michigan
- Mahbub Ali Pasha begins a 42 year reign as Nizam of Hyderabad
- James Gordon Bennett, Jr. of the New York Herald, asks Henry Morton Stanley to go and find Dr Livingstone, despite him not being lost or in difficulty.
- The Meiji Emperor of Japan accepts the surrender of the four most powerful clans (Choshu, Tosa, Hizen and Satsuma) and reappoints the clan chiefs as Provincial Governors, on reduced revenues.
- Invention of barbed wire, see ranching.
- H. J. Heinz Company established.
- Abdur Rahman Khan is exiled from Afghanistan.
- The Roman Catholic Church prohibits abortion under any circumstance.
- "Michigan relics" appear Goldman Sachs and Co. was founded

Births

- January 4 - Tommy Corcoran, baseball player (d. 1960)
- January 10 - Grigori Rasputin, Russian mystic (d. 1916)
- January 15 - Stanisław Wyspiański, Polish dramatist, poet, painter, and architect (d. 1907)
- February 11 - Helene Kroller-Muller, Dutch museum founder and patron of the arts (d. 1939)
- February 14 - Charles Wilson, Scottish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959)
- March 5 - Michael von Faulhaber, German cardinal and archbishop (d. 1952)
- March 14 - Algernon Blackwood, English writer (d. 1951)
- March 18 - Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1940)
- March 21 - Florenz Ziegfeld, theatrical producer (d. 1932)
- April 2 - Hughie Jennings, baseball player (d. 1928)
- April 4 - Mary Colter, American architect (d. 1958)
- April 8 - Harvey Cushing, American neurosurgeon (d. 1939)
- April 11 - Gustav Vigeland, Norwegian sculptor (d. 1943)
- May 5 - Hans Pfitzner, German Composer (d. 1949)
- May 20 - John Stone Stone, American physicist and inventor (d. 1943)
- June 17 - Flora Finch, English-born comedienne (d. 1940)
- June 27 - Hans Spemann, German embryologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1941)
- August 10 - Lawrence Binyon, English poet and scholar (d. 1943)
- September 3 - Fritz Pregl, Austrian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1930)
- September 17 - Christian Lous Lange, Norwegian pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1938)
- September 23 - Mary Mallon, "Typhoid Mary" (d. 1938)
- October 2 - Mohandas Gandhi, founder of the modern Indian state and proponent of nonviolence (d. 1948)
- October 25 - John Heisman, American football coach (d. 1936)
- November 10 - Wayne Wheeler, American temperance movement leader.
- November 22 - André Gide, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1951)
- November 25 - Herbert Greenfield, Premier of Alberta (d. 1949)
- November 30 - Gustaf Dalén, Swedish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1937)
- December 30 - Stephen Leacock, British-Canadian author and economist (d. 1944)
- December 31 - Henri Matisse, French painter (d. 1954)

Deaths

- March 8 - Hector Berlioz, French composer (b. 1803)
- March 24 - Antoine-Henri Jomini, French general (b. 1779)
- April 20 - Carl Loewe, German composer (b. 1796)
- May 11 - Hijikata Toshizou, 2nd commander of the Shinsengumi (b. 1835)
- October 13 - Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, French literary critic (b. 1804)
- December 18 - Louis Moreau Gottschalk American composer and pianist (b. 1829) Category:1869 ko:1869년 simple:1869

1869

1869 is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar).

Events

Births

Deaths

1870

1870 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events

January - April

- January 1 - Plans for the Brooklyn Bridge are done.
- January 2 - Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge begins.
- January 6 - The inauguration of the Musikverein (Vienna).
- January 10 - John D. Rockefeller incorporates Standard Oil
- January 15 - A political cartoon for the first time symbolizes the United States Democratic Party with a donkey ("A Live Jackass Kicking a Dead Lion" by Thomas Nast for Harper's Weekly).
- January 26 - American Civil War: Virginia rejoins the Union
- January 27 - First college sorority, Kappa Alpha Theta, is formed at DePauw University
- February - Vrain Denis-Lucas in sentenced for two years in prison for multiple forgery in Paris
- February 2 - It is revealed that the famed Cardiff Giant was just carved gypsum and not the petrified remains of a human.
- February 3 - The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution is passed
- February 10 - Anaheim, California is incorporated.
- February 10 - The YWCA is founded (New York City)
- February 12 - Women gain the right to vote in Utah Territory.
- February 23 - Military control of Mississippi ends and it is readmitted to the Union.
- February 25 - Hiram Rhoades Revels, a Republican from Mississippi, is sworn into the United States Senate, becoming the first African American ever to sit in the U.S. Congress
- February 26 - In New York City, the first pneumatic-subway is opened.
- February 28 - The Bulgarian Exarchate is established by decree of Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz of the Ottoman Empire.
- March 2 - Francisco Solano López' last troops cornered by Triple Alliance troops at Cerro Cora. López refuses to surrender and is killed. Fighting ends in Paraguay - the War of the Triple Alliance is over
- March 30 - Texas is readmitted to the Union following Reconstruction.
- April 11 - Irish peer Lord Muncaster and his entourage kidnapped in Greece
- April 22 - Vladimir Lenin is born

May - August

- May 12 - The Canadian province of Manitoba is created in response to Louis Riel's Red River Rebellion
- May 14 - First rugby match to be played in New Zealand, between the Nelson Football Club and Nelson College.
- May 24 - The Port Adelaide Football Club play their first match of Australian rules football at Buck's Flat, Glanville, South Australia.
- June 22 - U.S. Congress created the Department of Justice.
- June 26 - Christmas is declared a federal holiday in the United States
- July 13 - The Emser Depesche serves as a reason for a war between Prussia and France
- July 15 - Reconstruction: Georgia becomes the last former Confederate states to be readmitted to the Union, and the CSA is dissoluted.
- July 19 - Franco-Prussian War: France declares war on Prussia.

September - December

- September 2 - Franco-Prussian War: Battle of Sedan - Prussian forces defeat the French armies and take emperor Napoleon III and 100,000 of his soldiers prisoner at Sedan.
- September 4 - Emperor Napoleon III of France is deposed and the Third Republic is declared. Empress Eugenie flees to England with her children.
- September 6 - Louisa Ann Swain of Laramie, Wyoming, votes in the morning, becoming the first woman in the United States to cast a vote legally after 1807.
- September 20 - With Bersaglieri soldiers entering Rome at Porta Pia, the unification of Italy is completed. End of the temporal power of Papacy.
- October 2 – Referendum in Rome supports joining the Italy with 133681 against 1500. Decision is made official October 6. Rome becomes the capital of unified Italy
- October 8 - Leon Michel Gambetta escapes the besieged Paris in a hot-air balloon
- November 1 - In the United States, the newly-created Weather Bureau (later renamed the National Weather Service) makes its first official meteorological forecast: "High winds at Chicago and Milwaukee... and along the Lakes".
- November 16 - Spanish Cortes proclaims Amadeo de Saboya as king Amadeus I of Spain.
- December – Assassination of Juan Prim, Prime minister of Spain

Unknown date

- Franco-Prussian War
- Term "economics" first used, by Alfred Marshall
- In England, the Forfeiture Act was passed, abolishing the punishment of hanging, drawing and quartering.

Births

- January 2 - Ernst Barlach, German sculptor, graphic artist, and poet (d. 1938)
- January 8 - Miguel Primo de Rivera, dictator of Spain (d. 1930)
- February 7 - Alfred Adler, Austrian psychologist (d. 1937)
- March 5 - Frank Norris, American writer (d. 1902)
- March 17 - Horace Donisthorpe, English entomologist (d. 1951)
- March 20 - Paul Erich von Lettow-Vorbeck, German general (d. 1964)
- April 22 - Vladimir Lenin, Russian revolutionary, first leader of the Soviet Union (d. 1924)
- April 30 - Franz Lehár, Austrian composer (d. 1948)
- May 19 - Albert Fish, American serial killer (d. 1936)
- June 13 - Jules Bordet, Belgian immunologist and microbiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1961)
- July 3 - Richard Bedford Bennett, eleventh Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1947)
- July 12 - Louis II of Monaco (d. 1949)
- July 29 - George Dixon, Canadian boxer (d. 1909)
- August 11 - Tom Richardson English cricketer (d. 1912)
- August 31 - Maria Montessori, Italian educator (d. 1952)
- September 26 - King Christian X of Denmark (d. 1947)
- September 30 - Jean Baptiste Perrin, French physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1942)
- October 10 - Ivan Alekseyevich Bunin, Russian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1953)
- November 21 - Sigfrid Edström, Swedish sports official (d. 1964)
- November 27 - Juho Kusti Paasikivi, Prime Minister and President of Finland (d. 1956)
- December 5 - Vítězslav Novák, Czech composer (d. 1949)
- December 12 - Walter Benona Sharp, American oil pioneer (d. 1912)
- December 18 - Saki, English writer (d. 1918)

Deaths

- January 29 - Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b. 1797)
- February 7 - Sylvain Salnave a Hatian president
- February 19 - Nathaniel de Rothschild, French wine grower (b. 1812)
- March 28 - George Henry Thomas, American general (b. 1816)
- May 6 - Sir James Young Simpson, Scottish physician and researcher (b. 1811)
- June 9 - Charles Dickens, British novelist (b. 1812)
- July 20 - Jules Alfred Huot de Goncourt, French writer and publisher (b. 1822)
- September 12 - Fitz Hugh Ludlow, American author and explorer (b. 1836)
- September 23 - Prosper Mérimée, French writer (b. 1803)
- October 12 - Robert E. Lee, American Confederate general (b. 1807)
- November 24 - Comte de Lautreamont, French poet and writer (b. 1846)
- November 28 - Frédéric Bazille, French painter (b. 1841)
- December 5 - Alexandre Dumas, père, French author (b. 1802)
- December 27 - General Prim, Spanish dictator (b. 1814) Category:1870 ko:1870년 ms:1870 simple:1870 th:พ.ศ. 2413

1870

1870 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events

January - April

May - August

September - December

Unknown date

- Franco-Prussian War
- Term "economics" first used, by Alfred Marshall
- In England, the Forfeiture Act was passed, abolishing the punishment of hanging, drawing and quartering.

Births

Deaths

1876

1876 is a leap year starting on Saturday.

Events

January-March

- January 31 United States orders all Native Americans to move into reservations.
- February 2 - The National League of Professional Baseball Clubs of Major League Baseball is formed.
- February 14 - Alexander Graham Bell applies for a patent for the telephone.
- February 22 - Johns Hopkins University founded in Baltimore, Maryland.
- March 7 - Alexander Graham Bell is granted a patent for an invention he calls the telephone (patent # 174,464).
- March 10 - Alexander Graham Bell makes the first successful telephone call by saying "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you."

April-June

- April 16 - Bulgarian April uprising
- April 17 - Six Fenian prisoners escape from a penal colony in Fremantle, Australia with the aid of ship Catalpa.
- May 1 - Turks crush uprising of Bulgar Slavs
- May 11-May 12 - Berlin Memorandum - Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary propose an armistice between Turkey and its insurgents
- May 16 - British prime minister Benjamin Disraeli rejects Berlin Memorandum
- May 18 - Wyatt Earp starts work in Dodge City, Kansas, serving under Marshal Larry Deger
- May 30 - Abd-ul-Aziz, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire is deposed and succeeded by his nephew Murat V.
- June 4 - An express train called the Transcontinental Express arrives in San Francisco, California via the First Transcontinental Railroad only 83 hours and 39 minutes after having left New York City.
- June 17 - Indian Wars: Battle of the Rosebud - 1,500 Sioux and Cheyenne led by Crazy Horse beat back General George Crook forces at Rosebud Creek in Montana Territory.
- June 25 - Indian Wars: Battle of the Little Bighorn. Lieutenant colonel George Armstrong Custer of the US 7th Cavalry Regiment leads a unit of 300 men in battle against the allied forces of Lakota, Cheyenne and Arapaho, counting 5000 men under the leadership of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. The latter emerge victorious.

July-September

- July 1 - Serbia declares war on Turkey
- July 2 - Montenegro declares war on Turkey
- July 4 - United States Centennial See: [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/T825xB1xI5/ Centennial exposition described and illustrated], being a concise and graphic description of this grand enterprise commemorative of the first centennary of American independence. Publisher: Philadelphia, Hubbard bros, 1876.
- July 8 - Reichstadt Agreement between Russia and Austria-Hungary on partitioning the Balkan peninsula.
- August 1 - Colorado is admitted as the 38th U.S. state.
- August 8 - Thomas Edison receives a patent for his mimeograph.
- August 31 - Murat V, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire is deposed and succeeded by his brother Abdul Hamid II.
- September 5 - Gladstone publishes Bulgarian Horrors pamphlet
- September 7 - In Northfield, Minnesota, Jesse James and the James-Younger Gang attempt to rob the town's bank but are surrounded by an angry mob and are nearly wiped out.

October-December

- October 4 - Texas A&M University, the state’s first public institution of higher education, opened on October 4, 1876 as the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas.
- November 2 - Atlantic giant squid 6.1 meters long washes ashore in Thimble Tickle Bay in Canada
- November 21 - Porfirio Diaz arrives in Mexico City and takes power
- November 7 - U.S. presidential election is held. After long and heated disputes, Rutherford Birchard Hayes would be declared the winner over Samuel Jones Tilden.
- November 7 - Green Clay Smith ran as presidential candidate of Prohibition Party.
- November 7 - Samuel Fenton Cary ran as vice-presidential candidate of Greenback Party.
- November 23 - Corrupt Tammany Hall leader William Marcy Tweed (better known as Boss Tweed) is delivered to authorities in New York City after being captured in Spain.
- November 25 - Indian Wars: In retaliation for the dramatic American defeat at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, United States Army troops under General Ranald Mackenzie sack Chief Dull Knife's sleeping Cheyenne village at the headwaters of the Powder River (the soldiers destroyed all of the villager's winter food and clothing and then slashed their ponies' throats).
- November 29 - Porfirio Díaz becomes President of Mexico.
- December 5 - Fire in theater in Brooklyn, New York City, kills more than 300
- December 23 - Conference of Constantinople about Ottoman treatment of its ethnic minorities begins
- December 29 - The Ashtabula River Railroad bridge disaster, 64 injured, 92 dead at Ashtabula, Ohio.

Unknown dates

- Spandau Prison finished
- Paraguay makes peace with Argentina
- Invention of the four-stroke cycle internal combustion engine by Nikolaus Otto
- United States of America Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia
- After the Young Turks rebellion deposes sultan Abd al-Aziz. He is succeeded by Murad V who, after being declared insane, gives way to Abd al-Hamid I.
- Samurai are banned from carrying swords in Japan.
- Harvard Lampoon founded.
- Heinz Ketchup introduced.

Births

January-March

- January 5 - Konrad Adenauer, Chancellor of Germany (d. 1967)
- January 11 - Elmer Flick, baseball player (d. 1971)
- January 12 - Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, Italian composer (d. 1948)
- January 12 - Jack London, American author (d. 1916)
- January 20 - Józef Hofmann, Polish pianist (d. 1967)
- January 23 - Otto Diels, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1954)
- January 29 - Havergal Brian, British composer (d. 1972)
- February 19 - Constantin Brancusi, Romanian sculptor (d. 1957)
- March 1 - Henri de Baillet-Latour, Belgian International Olympic Committee president (d. 1942)
- March 2 - Pope Pius XII, (d. 1958)
- March 4 - Léon-Paul Fargue, French poet (d. 1947)
- March 11 - Carl Ruggles, British composer (d. 1971)
- March 21 - John Tewksbury, American athlete (d. 1968)

April-September

- April 4 - Maurice de Vlaminck, lyricist (d. 1958)
- April 22 - Robert Bárány, Nobel Prize winner in medicine
- June 5 - Tony Jackson, jazz musician (d. 1920)
- July 12 - Max Jacob, French poet (d. 1944)
- July 19 - Joseph Fielding Smith, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1972)
- August 7 - Mata Hari, exotic dancer and spy
- September 6 - John James Richard Macleod, Scottish-born physician and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1935)
- September 15 - Bruno Walter, German conductor (d. 1962)
- September 16 - Marvin Hart, boxer (d. 1931)
- September 18 - James Scullin, ninth Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1953)
- September 26 - Edith Abbott, social worker, educator, and author (d. 1957)

October-December

- October 13 - Rube Waddell, Baseball Hall of Famer (d. 1914)
- November 7 - Charlie Townsend, English cricketer (d. 1958)
- November 7 - Culbert Olson, Governor of California (d. 1962)
- November 17 - August Sander, German photographer (d. 1964)
- November 23 - Manuel de Falla, Spanish composer (d. 1946)
- November 24 - Walter Burley Griffin, American architect (d. 1937)
- December 9 - Berton Churchill, Canadian actor (d. 1940)
- December 12 - Alvin Kraenzlein, American athlete (d. 1928)
- December 21 - Jack Lang, Australian politician (d. 1975)
- December 25 - Muhammad Ali Jinnah, founder of Pakistan (d. 1948)
- December 25 - Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959)
- December 29 - Pablo Casals, Catalan cellist (d. 1973)
- Alfred Stock, German chemist (d. 1946)

Deaths

- January 14 - Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, French painter, total gaylord (b. 1780)
- February 18 - Charlotte Cushman, American stage actress (b. 1816)
- May 26 - František Palacký, Czech historian and politician (b. 1798)
- June 21 - Antonio López de Santa Anna, President of Mexico (b. 1794)
- June 25 - George Armstrong Custer, U.S. officer (killed in battle) (b. 1839)
- August 2 - Wild Bill Hickok, American gunfighter and entertainer (b. 1837)
- October 1 - James Lick, American land baron (b. 1796)
- Abd al-Aziz, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1830) 1876 was also the year that football club Port Vale FC were formed Category:1876 ko:1876년 ms:1876 simple:1876 th:พ.ศ. 2419

Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield

The Right Honourable Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC (21 December, 1804 – 19 April, 1881) was a British statesman and literary figure. He served in government for three decades, twice as Prime Minister – the first and thus far only person of Jewish descent to do so, although Disraeli was baptized in the Anglican Church at an early age. Disraeli's most lasting achievement was the creation of the modern Conservative Party after the Corn Laws schism of 1846. His time in parliament from 1852 onwards was marked by his often intense rivalry with William Ewart Gladstone, who eventually rose to become leader (if not founder) of the Liberal Party. In this duel, Disraeli was aided by his warm friendship with Queen Victoria, who came to detest Gladstone during the latter's first premiership in the 1870s. In 1876 Disraeli was raised to the peerage as the Earl of Beaconsfield, capping nearly four decades in the House of Commons. He died in 1881. Before and during his political career Disraeli was well-known as a literary and social figure, although his novels are not generally regarded as belonging to the first rank of Victorian literature. He mainly wrote romances, of which Sibyl and Vivian Grey are perhaps best-known, although Lothair was probably the most popular at the time.

Early life

1881 Disraeli descended from Italian Sephardic Jews from both his maternal and paternal sides. His father was the literary critic and historian Isaac D'Israeli who, though Jewish, had Benjamin baptised and raised in the Church of England. The elder D'Israeli (Benjamin apparently changed the spelling in the 1820s) himself was content to remain outside organized religion. Beginning in 1817 Benjamin attended Higham Hall, in Epping Forest. His younger brothers, in contrast, attended the superior Winchester College, a fact which apparently grated on Disraeli and may explain his dislike of his mother, Maria D'Israeli. His father destined him for the law, and he was articled to a solicitor in 1821. The law was, however, uncongenial, and by 1825 he gave it up. Disraeli was apparently determined to obtain independent means, and speculated on the stock exchange as early as 1824 on various South American mining companies. The recognition of the new South American republics on the recommendation of George Canning had led to a considerable boom, encouraged by various promoters and aggrandizers. In this connection Disraeli became involved with the financier J. D. Powles, one such booster. In the course of 1825 Disraeli wrote three pamphlets (anonymously) for Powles, promoting the companies. That same year Disraeli's financial activities brought him into contact with the publisher John Murray. Murray, like Powles and Disraeli, was involved in the South American mines. Accordingly, they attempted to bring out a newspaper, The Representative, to promote the cause of the mines and those politicians who supported the mines, specifically Canning. The paper was a failure, in part because the mining "bubble" burst in late 1825, ruining Powles and Disraeli. Also, according to Disraeli's biographer, Lord Blake, the paper was "atrociously edited", and probably would have failed anyway. The debts which Disraeli incurred through this affair would dog him the rest of his life. Lord Blake Disraeli now turned towards literature, and brought out his first novel, Vivian Grey, in 1827. Disraeli's biographers agree that Vivian Grey was a thinly-veiled re-telling of the affair of the Representative, and it proved very popular on its release, although it also caused much offence within the Tory literary world when Disrael's authorship was discovered. The book, which was initially published anonymously, was purportedly written by a "man of fashion" – someone who moved in society. Disraeli, then just twenty-three, did not move in society, and the numerous solecisms present in Vivian Grey made this painfully obvious. Reviewers were sharply critical on these grounds of both the author and the book. Furthermore, Murray believed that Disraeli had caricatured him and abused his confidence–an accusation denied at the time, although subsequent biographers (notably Blake) have sided with Murray. After producing a Vindication of the British Constitution, and some political pamphlets, Disraeli followed up Vivian Grey by a series of novels, The Young Duke (1831), Contarini Fleming (1832), Alroy (1833), Venetia and Henrietta Temple (1837). During the same period he had also written The Revolutionary Epick and three burlesques, Ixion, The Infernal Marriage, and Popanilla. Of these only Henrietta Temple (based on his affair with Henrietta Sykes) was a true success.

Political career

Disraeli had been considering a political career as early as 1830, before he departed England for the Mediterranean. His first real efforts, however, did not come until 1832, during the great crisis over the Reform Bill, when he contributed to an anti-Whig pamphlet edited by Croker and published by Murray entitled England and France: or a cure for Ministerial Gallomania. The choice of a Tory publication was regarded as odd if not offensive by Disraeli's friends and relatives, who thought him more of a Radical. RadicalIndeed, Disraeli had objected to Murray about Croker inserting "high Tory" sentiment, writing that "it is quite impossible that anything adverse to the general measure of Reform can issue from my pen." Further, at the time Gallomania was published, Disraeli was in fact electioneering in High Wycombe in the Radical interest. Disraeli's politics at the time were influenced both by his rebellious streak and by his desire to make his mark. In the early 1830s the Tories and the interests they represented appeared to be a lost cause. The other great party, the Whigs, was apparently anathema to Disraeli: "Toryism is worn out & I cannot condescend to be a Whig." Though he initially stood for election, unsuccessfully, as a Radical, Disraeli was a progressive Tory by the time he won a seat in the House of Commons in 1837 representing the constituency of Maidstone. Disraeli was sympathetic to some of the demands of the Chartists and argued for an alliance between the landed aristocracy and the working class against the increasing power of the middle class helping found the Young England group in 1842 to promote the view that the rich should use their power to protect the poor from exploitation by the middle class. 1842 movement]]Throughout his career Disraeli would seek alliances between the Conservatives and Radicals, to little avail. Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel passed over Disraeli when putting together his Cabinet in 1841 and Disraeli gradually became a sharp critic of Peel's government. In Parliament, Disraeli became known for his defense of the protectionist Corn Laws, in opposition to fellow Conservative Peel's advocacy of free trade, which Disraeli denounced as "laissez-faire capitalism". The end of 1845 and the first months of 1846 were dominated by the battle in parliament between the free traders and the protectionists. Disraeli lost the fight, but the repeal of the Corn Laws came at great political cost as the Conservative Party split in half. Peel and his followers, known as Peelites, moved towards the Whigs, while the new Conservative Party formed around the protectionists, led by Disraeli, Lord George Bentinck, and Lord Stanley (later Lord Derby).

In Office

In 1852 Lord Derby appointed Disraeli Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons in the (in)famous Who? Who? Ministry. Due to a combination of bad timing and a lack of experience, Disraeli's first Budget was a failure. Who? Who? MinistryHis duel, nonetheless, with William Ewart Gladstone over the Budget marked the beginning of thirty years of parliamentary hostility. Derby's government fell after a few months and Disraeli left government; Gladstone succeeded him as Chancellor (and was far more successful in that position). In 1858, Derby returned to the office of the Prime Minister and again appointed Disraeli his Chancellor of the Exchequer and government leader of the House of Commons (as the Prime Minister sat in the House of Lords) with responsibilities to introduce reforms to parliament but his reforms would have disenfranchised some voters in the towns and were opposed by the Liberals and defeated. The ministry fell in 1859 and Disraeli returned to the opposition bench until 1866 when he again became Chancellor of the Exchequer and government leader in the House of Commons. After engineering the defeat of a Liberal Reform Bill introduced by Gladstone in 1866, Disraeli and Derby introduced their own measure in 1867. 1866This was primarily a political strategy designed to give Conservatives control of the reform process and thereby long term benefits in the Commons, similar to those derived by the Whigs after the 1832 Reform Act. The Reform Act of 1867 extended the franchise by 1,500,000 by giving the vote to male householders and male lodgers paying at least 10 pounds for rooms and eliminating rotten boroughs with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants and granting constituencies to fifteen unrepresented towns and extra representation in parliament to larger towns such as Liverpool and Manchester, which had previously been underrepresented in Parliament. This act was unpopular with the right-wing of the Conservative Party, most notably Lord Cranborne (later the Marquess of Salisbury), who resigned from the government and spoke against the bill. Cranborne, however, was unable to lead a rebellion similar to that which Disraeli had led against Peel twenty years earlier. Disraeli's involvements in the passing of the Second Reform Act 1867 is largely seen as a cyncial example of political opportunism. One historian to agree with this is Sean Lang (Parliamentary Reform, 1785-1928, 1999, Routledge). When contrasted with the idealistic Gladstone, it is not hard to see why these two giants of political theatre disagreed so vehemently.

Prime Minister

Derby's health had been declining for some time and he finally resigned as Prime Minister in late February of 1868; he would live for another twenty months. Disraeli's efforts over the past two years had dispelled, for the time being, any doubts about him succeeding Derby as leader of the Conservative Party and therefore Prime Minister. As Disraeli remarked, "I have climbed to the top of the greasy pole." 1868However, the Conservatives were still a minority in the House of Commons, and the enaction of the Reform Bill required the calling of new election. Disraeli's term as Prime Minister would therefore be fairly short, unless the Conservatives won the general election. He made only two changes in the cabinet: he replaced Lord Chelmsford as Lord Chancellor with Lord Cairns, and brought in George Ward Hunt as Chancellor of the Exchequer. Disraeli and Chelmsford had never gotten along particularly well, and Cairns, in Disraeli's view, was a far stronger minister. However, in the election that followed, William Gladstone and the Liberals were returned to power with a majority of 170. After six years in opposition, Disraeli and the Conservative Party won the election giving the party its first absolute majority in the House of Commons since the 1840s. Disraeli's government introduced various reforms such as the Artisans Dwellings Act (1875), the Public Health Act (1875), the Pure Food and Drugs Act (1875), the Climbing Boys Act (1875), the Education Act (1876). His government also introduced a new Factory Act meant to protect workers, the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act (1875) to allow peaceful picketing and the Employers and Workmen Act (1878) to enable workers to sue employers in the civil courts if they broke legal contracts. 1878] Disraeli was a staunch British imperialist and helped strengthen the British Empire with his support for the construction of the Suez Canal. He also achieved a diplomatic success at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 in limiting the growing influence of Russia in the Balkans and breaking up the League of the Three Emperors. However, difficulties in South Africa and Afghanistan weakened his government and likely led to his party's defeat in the 1880 election. He was elevated to the House of Lords in 1876 when Queen Victoria made him Earl of Beaconsfield. He remained Prime Minister until 1880 when the Conservatives were defeated by William Gladstone's Liberals in that year's general election. Disraeli became ill soon after and died in April 1881. His literary executor and for all intents and purposes his heir was his private secretary, Lord Rowton.

Disraeli's governments

- First Disraeli Ministry (February–December 1868)
- Second Disraeli Ministry (February 1874–April 1880)

Works by Disraeli

Second Disraeli Ministry

Fiction

- Vivian Grey (1826; )
- Popanilla (1828; )
- The Young Duke (1831)
- Contarini Fleming (1832)
- Alroy (1833)
- The Infernal Marriage (1834)
- Ixion in Heaven (1834)
- The Revolutionary Epick (1834)
- The Rise of Iskander (1834; )
- Henrietta Temple (1837)
- Venetia (1837; )
- The Tragedy of Count Alarcos (1839); )
- Coningsby, or the Younger Generation (1844; )
- Sybil or, The Two Nations (1845; )
- Tancred, or the New Crusade (1847)
- Lothair (1870; )
- Endymion (1880; )
- Falconet (book) (unfinished 1881)

Non-fiction

- An Inquiry into the Plans, Progress, and Policy of the American Mining Companies (1825)
- Lawyers and Legislators: or, Notes, on the American Mining Companies (1825)
- The present state of Mexico (1825)
- England and France, or a Cure for the Ministerial Gallomania (1832)
- What Is He? (1833)
- The Letters of Runnymede (1836)
- Lord George Bentinck (1852)

Biographies of Beaconsfield

- Robert Blake, Disraeli (1966)
- Sarah Bradford, Disraeli (1982)
- Christopher Hibbert, Disraeli and His World (1978)
- Christopher Hibbert, Disraeli, a Personal History (2004)
- André Maurois, Disraeli (1927)
- Hesketh Pearson, Dizzy (1951)
- Jane Ridley, Young Disraeli, 1804-1846 (1995)
- Stanley Weintraub, Disraeli (1993)

References in Popular Culture

In the Family Guy episode, "One If By Clam, Two If By Sea" Disraeli is mentioned. Lois pulls Peter aside and tells him that their new British neighbor, Nigel Pinchley and all British men are charming, to which Peter responds: "That's what they said about Benjamin Disraeli." The scene then shows a cartoon Disraeli sitting at a desk writing with a quill who looks at the camera and says "You don't even know who I am." The 1967 Cream album Disraeli Gears takes its name from a roadie's confusion between the name Disraeli and the derailleur gears of a bicycle.

Films about Beaconsfield

Disraeli Gears
- Disraeli (1929) George Arliss (Best Actor Oscar), Joan Bennett
- The Mudlark (1950) Alec Guinness
- Disraeli (1978) Ian McShane, Mary Peach (Masterpiece Theatre four-part series)
- Mrs Brown (1997)Sir Antony Sher

References

-
- Jerman, B. R. The Young Disraeli. 1960.

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